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Figure 8 (A) Diagram depicting left-helix orientation of epicardial (red) and right helix orientation of endocardial (green) fibers within the myocardial shell. Epicardial fibers lay farther outward and are more numerous than endocardial fibers. The result of this imbalance is that, during contraction, shear strain occurs in a direction of the epicardial fiber orientation. (B) Relationship between shear strain  xy and torsion  . Shear strain is generated by a contraction of epicardial fibers oriented in left-handed helix (light red arrow). Torsion is proportional to shear strain and ventricular length, and inversely proportional to short-axis radius.
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