JACC
HOME SUBSCRIPTIONS CURRENT ISSUE PAST ISSUES CARDIOSOURCE SEARCH HELP FEEDBACK
QUICK SEARCH:   [advanced]


     

J Am Coll Cardiol, 2001; 37:153-156
© 2001 by the American College of Cardiology Foundation
This Article
Right arrow Abstract Freely available
Right arrow Figures Only
Right arrow Full Text (PDF)
Right arrow Alert me when this article is cited
Right arrow Alert me if a correction is posted
Services
Right arrow Email this article to a friend
Right arrow Similar articles in this journal
Right arrow Similar articles in PubMed
Right arrow Alert me to new issues of the journal
Right arrow Download to citation manager
Citing Articles
Right arrow Citing Articles via HighWire
Right arrow Citing Articles via Google Scholar
Google Scholar
Right arrow Articles by Tanaka, H.
Right arrow Articles by Seals, D. R.
Right arrow Search for Related Content
PubMed
Right arrow PubMed Citation
Right arrow Articles by Tanaka, H.
Right arrow Articles by Seals, D. R.

CLINICAL STUDY: EXERCISE TESTING

Age-predicted maximal heart rate revisited

Hirofumi Tanaka, PhDa, Kevin D. Monahan, MSa and Douglas R. Seals, PhDa,b

a Human Cardiovascular Research Laboratory, Department of Kinesiology and Applied Physiology, University of Colorado at Boulder, Boulder, Colorado, USA
b Divisions of Cardiology and Geriatric Medicine, Department of Medicine, University of Colorado Health Sciences Center, Denver, Colorado, USA

Manuscript received April 18, 2000; revised manuscript received July 24, 2000, accepted September 13, 2000.

Reprint requests and correspondence: Dr. Hirofumi Tanaka, Department of Kinesiology and Applied Physiology, Campus Box 354, University of Colorado at Boulder, Boulder, Colorado 80309-0354
tanakah{at}colorado.edu


   Abstract
Top
 Abstract
Methods
 Results
 Discussion
 References
 
OBJECTIVES

We sought to determine a generalized equation for predicting maximal heart rate (HRmax) in healthy adults.

BACKGROUND

The age-predicted HRmax equation (i.e., 220 – age) is commonly used as a basis for prescribing exercise programs, as a criterion for achieving maximal exertion and as a clinical guide during diagnostic exercise testing. Despite its importance and widespread use, the validity of the HRmax equation has never been established in a sample that included a sufficient number of older adults.

METHODS

First, a meta-analytic approach was used to collect group mean HRmax values from 351 studies involving 492 groups and 18,712 subjects. Subsequently, the new equation was cross-validated in a well-controlled, laboratory-based study in which HRmax was measured in 514 healthy subjects.

RESULTS

In the meta-analysis, HRmax was strongly related to age (r = –0.90), using the equation of 208 – 0.7 x age. The regression equation obtained in the laboratory-based study (209 – 0.7 x age) was virtually identical to that obtained from the meta-analysis. The regression line was not different between men and women, nor was it influenced by wide variations in habitual physical activity levels.

CONCLUSIONS

1) A regression equation to predict HRmax is 208 – 0.7 x age in healthy adults. 2) HRmax is predicted, to a large extent, by age alone and is independent of gender and habitual physical activity status. Our findings suggest that the currently used equation underestimates HRmax in older adults. This would have the effect of underestimating the true level of physical stress imposed during exercise testing and the appropriate intensity of prescribed exercise programs.

Abbreviations and Acronyms
  HRmax = maximal heart rate
  ;-1qO2 = minute oxygen consumption

Maximal heart rate (HRmax) is one of the most commonly used values in clinical medicine and physiology. For example, a straight percentage of HRmax or a fixed percentage of heart rate reserve (HRmax – heart rate at rest) is used as a basis for prescribing exercise intensity in both rehabilitation and disease prevention programs (1,2). Moreover, in some clinical settings, exercise testing is terminated when subjects reach an arbitrary percentage of their age-predicted maximal heart rate (e.g., 85% of HRmax) (3). Maximal heart rate also is widely used as a criterion for achieving peak exertion in the determination of maximal aerobic capacity (1,4,5).

Because maximal exercise testing is not feasible in many settings, HRmax is often estimated using the age-predicted equation of 220 – age. However, the validity of the age-predicted HRmax equation has not been established, particularly in a study sample that included an adequate number of older adults (e.g., >60 years of age). The latter limitation is crucial in that older adults demonstrate the highest prevalence of cardiovascular and other chronic diseases. As such, this is the most prevalent population undergoing diagnostic exercise testing, representing a key clinical target for exercise prescription. Importantly, older adults are a population in which there is often a reluctance or an inability to measure HRmax directly, owing to concerns related to the physiologic stress imposed by strenuous exercise. Thus, ironically, the 220 – age HRmax prediction equation is used in this population more than in any other.

Accordingly, the aim of the present study was to determine an equation for predicting HRmax in healthy, nonmedicated humans ranging widely in age. To address this aim, we first used a meta-analytic approach in which group mean HRmax values were obtained from the published data. Subsequently, we cross-validated the newly derived equation in a well-controlled, laboratory-based study. With each approach, we attempted to establish the generalizability of the equation by determining whether gender or habitual physical activity status exerted a significant modulatory influence on the HRmax-age relation.


   Methods
Top
 Abstract
 Methods
Results
 Discussion
 References
 
Meta-analytic study.   Meta-analysis is a set of quantitative procedures for systematically integrating and analyzing the findings of previous research. Meta-analysis in the present study was conducted as described previously in detail by our laboratory (6). As an initial step, an extensive search of the published data was conducted to identify as many studies as possible in which HRmax was measured. Initially, this was done by using computer searches. In addition, extensive hand searching and cross-referencing were performed using bibliographies of already retrieved studies. The following criteria for inclusion were used: 1) English language studies published in peer-reviewed journals; 2) data on men and women reported separately; 3) at least five subjects per group; 4) only the most recently published results of a particular study group; 5) adult subjects; 6) maximal exertion documented by using objective criteria (5); and 7) only healthy (e.g., nonischemic electrocardiographic response), nonmedicated and nonsmoking groups. A list of reports included in the meta-analysis can be obtained from the authors upon request. Because the studies included in the meta-analysis used different terms to describe the aerobic exercise status of their subject groups, we classified and analyzed the groups into three arbitrarily defined categories: 1) endurance-trained, referring to regular performance of vigorous endurance exercise ≥3 times/week for over one year; 2) active, referring to occasional or irregular performance of aerobic exercise ≤2 times/week; and 3) sedentary, referring to no performance of any aerobic exercise. Data from treadmill and cycle ergometers were evaluated together and separately. There were no differences in the results between the two analyses. Therefore, data from both exercise modes were pooled and are presented together. This meta-analysis included a total of 351 studies involving 492 subject groups (161 female and 331 male groups) and 18,712 subjects. Because we have previously shown that weighted results by sample size were not significantly different from unweighted results (6), no weighting scheme was used in the present meta-analysis.

Laboratory-based study.   Five-hundred fourteen subjects (237 men and 277 women) were studied (age range 18 to 81 years). All of the subjects were apparently healthy and free of overt coronary artery disease, as determined by a medical history questionnaire. Subjects >50 years of age were further evaluated by physical examination and by rest and maximal exercise electrocardiography ECG (3). None of the subjects smoked or used any medications other than hormone replacement (postmenopausal women). To eliminate the potentially confounding influence of severe obesity, only subjects with a body mass index <35 kg/m2 were included. Two different groups were studied: endurance exercise-trained and sedentary. The endurance-trained subjects (n = 229) had been training for at least the past two years. The subjects in the sedentary group (n = 285) performed no regular physical exercise. Before participation, the subjects gave their written, informed consent to participate in this investigation. This study was reviewed and approved by the Human Research Committee at the University of Colorado at Boulder.

Maximal heart rate was determined by a continuous, incremental treadmill protocol, as previously described in detail by our laboratory (4). Heart rates were continuously monitored with electrocardiography. Minute oxygen consumption (O2) also was measured using on-line, computer-assisted, open-circuit spirometry (4). After a warm-up period of 6 to 10 min, each subject ran or walked at a comfortable but brisk speed. The treadmill grade was increased 2.5% every 2 min until volitional exhaustion. At the end of each stage, the subjects were asked to rate their perception of effort using a Borg category scale (6 to 20 rating). Maximal heart rate was defined as the highest value recorded during the test. To ensure that each subject achieved maximal exertion, at least three of the following four criteria were met by each subject: 1) a plateau in O2 with increasing exercise intensity (<100 ml); 2) a respiratory exchange ratio of at least 1.15; 3) a maximal respiratory rate of at least 35 breaths/min; and 4) a rating of perceived exertion of at least 18 units on the Borg scale (5).

Statistical analysis.   Linear regression analyses were performed to determine the association among variables. In all cases, age was used as the predictor variable. Pearson product-moment correlation coefficients were used to indicate the magnitude and direction of relations among variables. The slopes of regression lines were compared using analysis of covariance. Forward stepwise multiple regression analyses were used to identify significant independent determinants for the age-related declines in HRmax. To do so, only those variables that had significant univariate correlations with HRmax (e.g., age, body mass) were entered in the model. All data were reported as the pooled mean value ± SD. The statistical significance level was set, a priori, at p < 0.01 for all analyses.


   Results
Top
 Abstract
 Methods
 Results
Discussion
 References
 
Meta-analytic study.   Figure 1 illustrates the decline in HRmax in men and women included in the meta-analysis. Maximal heart rate was strongly and inversely related to age in both men and women (r = –0.90). The rate of decline and the y intercepts were not different between men and women nor among sedentary (211 – 0.8 x age), active (207 – 0.7 x age) and endurance-trained (206 – 0.7 x age) subjects. The regression equation, when all the subjects were combined, was 208 – 0.7 x age. Stepwise regression analysis revealed that age alone explained ~80% of the individual variance in HRmax.



View larger version (27K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]
  		Figure 1 Relation between maximal heart rate (HRmax) (group mean values) and subject group age obtained from the meta-analysis.

 
Laboratory-based study.   The maximal respiratory exchange ratio (1.17 ± 0.06) and maximal rating of perceived exertion (19.1 ± 0.8) were not different across ages, suggesting consistently similar voluntary maximal efforts. The relation between HRmax and age obtained in the laboratory-based study is presented in Figure 2. Maximal heart rate was inversely related to age in both men and women. There was substantial variation in HRmax across the entire age range, with standard deviations ranging from 7 to 11 beats/min. The regression equation for HRmax (209 – 0.7 x age) was virtually identical to that obtained from the meta-analysis. Again, no significant differences in the HRmax regression equation were observed between men and women or between sedentary (212 – 0.7 x age) and endurance-trained (205 – 0.6 x age) subjects.



View larger version (28K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]
  		Figure 2 Relation between maximal heart rate (HRmax) and age obtained from the prospective, laboratory-based study.

 

   Discussion
Top
 Abstract
 Methods
 Results
 Discussion
References
 
The primary findings of the present study are as follows. First, a regression equation for estimating HRmax is 208 – 0.7 x age in healthy adult humans, which is significantly different from the traditional 220 – age equation. Second, HRmax is predicted, to a large extent, by age alone and is independent of gender and physical activity status. These results were first obtained in a meta-analysis of previously published studies and then confirmed in a prospective, well-controlled, laboratory-based study. Our findings suggest that the prevailing equation significantly underestimates HRmax in older adults. This would have the effect of underestimating the true level of physical stress imposed during exercise testing, as well as the intensity of exercise programs that are based on HRmax-derived target heart rate prescriptions.

Comparison with the traditional equation.   The original reports proposing the 220 – age HRmax equation appear to be reviews by Fox and Haskell in the 1970s (7,8). The age-predicted equation was determined "arbitrarily" from a total of 10 studies. The highest age included was <65 years, with the majority of subjects being ≤55 years old. Because of these limitations, there have been some attempts to establish a more appropriate equation to predict HRmax (9–11). However, similar to the original reports by Fox and Haskell (7,8), these studies probably or definitely included subjects with cardiovascular disease who smoked and/or were taking cardiac medications. Each of these conditions influences HRmax independent of age (10,12,13). Therefore, the present study is the first to determine the age-predicted equation for healthy, unmedicated and nonsmoking adult humans. Another unique aspect of the present study is that each subject achieved a verified maximal level of effort, as established by conventional maximal exercise criteria (e.g., a plateau in O2, maximal respiratory exchange ratio >1.15).

We obtained the regression equation of 208 – 0.7 x age to predict HRmax in the present study. When this equation was compared with the traditional 220 – age equation (Fig. 3), it is clear that the traditional equation overestimates HRmax in young adults, intersects with the present equation at age 40 years and then increasingly underestimates HRmax with further increases in age. For example, at age 70 years, the difference between the two equations is ~10 beats/min. Considering the wide range of individual subject values around the regression line for HRmax (SD ~10 beats/min), the underestimation of HRmax could be >20 beats/min for some older adults. Although the present HRmax equation provides a more accurate estimation of HRmax on average, as with previous equations, it may not precisely predict true HRmax in some individuals, because of the standard deviation. As such, despite the convenience and ease of use of age-predicted HRmax, direct measurements of HRmax should be used as an indicator of physical stress whenever possible. Alternatively, individuals may choose to use more subjective end points of exercise, such as breathlessness and/or a fatigue level considered to be "somewhat hard" to "hard" on the Borg perceived exertion scale (2).



View larger version (34K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]
  		Figure 3 Regression lines depicting the relation between maximal heart rate (HRmax) and age obtained from the results derived from our equation (208 – 0.7 x age) (solid line with 95% confidence interval), as compared with the results derived from the traditional 220 – age equation (dashed line). Maximal heart rates predicted by traditional and current equations, as well as the differences between the two equations, are shown in the table format at the top.

 
Clinical implications.   These differences in HRmax could have a number of important clinical implications for older adults. First, because exercise testing is terminated when subjects reach a certain percentage of predicted HRmax (e.g., 85% HRmax) in some clinical settings (3), use of the prevailing prediction equation would result in premature termination of the test and possibly failure to attain required exertion levels for diagnostic validity. Second, for physical activity intervention programs, an aerobic exercise prescription based on the traditional equation would result in a target heart rate below the intended intensity which may also be optimal for producing health benefits). Third, in fitness and health settings, maximal aerobic capacity is commonly predicted by extrapolating submaximal heart rate to age-predicted HRmax (e.g., YMCA cycle protocol) (1). Under these conditions, use of the prevailing equation would result in an underestimation of aerobic fitness levels.

Factors influencing HRmax.   We found that the rate of decline in maximal heart rate was not associated with either gender or physical activity status. More importantly, a large portion of variability was explained by age alone. These results collectively indicate that the same age-based equation can be used for various groups of healthy adults to estimate their HRmax values. We wish to emphasize, however, that because we excluded individuals with overt cardiovascular disease and smokers (10,12,13), the present equation may not be applicable to these subjects.

Mechanisms.   The mechanism underlying the age-related reduction in HRmax is not clear. It has been postulated that the primary mechanism is related to an age-related decline in intrinsic heart rate (i.e., independent of autonomic influences) (14,15). In this context, it is interesting to note that the rate of decline in HRmax observed in the present study is very similar to that reported previously for intrinsic heart rate determined after cardiac autonomic blockade (–0.6 – 0.8 beats/min per year) (14,15). Moreover, consistent with the present findings, gender (14) and habitual physical activity (16) do not appear to influence intrinsic heart rate in humans. These results collectively suggest that a decrease in HRmax with age may primarily be due to the reduction in intrinsic heart rate.

Conclusions.   The results of the present study fail to validate the traditional equation for predicting HRmax across the adult age range in healthy humans. Specifically, the traditional equation underestimates HRmax past age 40 years, markedly so in older adults. On the basis of the cross-confirmatory findings of our meta-analysis and complementary prospective study, we present a new equation for future use that should provide more precise results. These findings have important clinical implications related to exercise testing and prescription.


   Footnotes
 
This work was supported by National Institutes of Health (Bethesda, Maryland) awards AG-00847, AG-06537 and AG-13038.


   References
Top
 Abstract
 Methods
 Results
 Discussion
 References
 

  1. American College of Sports Medicine. ACSM’s Guidelines for Exercise Testing and Prescription. 6th ed. Baltimore, MD: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2000.
  2. Fletcher GF. How to implement physical activity in primary and secondary prevention: a statement for healthcare professionals from the Task Force on Risk Reduction, American Heart Association. Circulation. 1997;96:355–357[Medline]
  3. Gibbons RJ, Balady GJ, Beasley JW, et al. ACC/AHA guidelines for exercise testing: a report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines (Committee on Exercise Testing). J Am Coll Cardiol. 1997;30:260–315[CrossRef][Medline]
  4. Tanaka H, DeSouza CA, Jones PP, Stevenson ET, Davy KP, Seals DR. Greater rate of decline in maximal aerobic capacity with age in physically active vs. sedentary healthy women. J Appl Physiol. 1997;83:1947–1953[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  5. Howley ET, Bassett DR, Welch HG. Criteria for maximal oxygen uptake: review and commentary. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1995;27:1292–1301[Medline]
  6. Fitzgerald MD, Tanaka H, Tran ZV, Seals DR. Age-related decline in maximal aerobic capacity in regularly exercising vs. sedentary females: a meta-analysis. J Appl Physiol. 1997;83:160–165[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  7. Fox SM, Haskell WL. The exercise stress test: needs for standardization. Eliakim M, Neufeld HN. Cardiology: Current Topics and Progress. 6th ed. New York: Academic Press; 1970. p. 149–154
  8. Fox SM, Naughton JP, Haskell WL. Physical activity and the prevention of coronary heart disease. Ann Clin Res. 1971;3:404–432[Medline]
  9. Londeree BR, Moeschberger ML. Influence of age and other factors on maximal heart rate. J Cardiac Rehabil. 1984;4:44–49
  10. Whaley MH, Kaminsky LA, Dwyer GB, Getchell LH, Norton JA. Predictors of over- and underachievement of age-predicted maximal heart rate. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1992;24:1173–1179[Medline]
  11. Sheffield LT, Maloof JA, Sawyer JA, Roitman D. Maximal heart rate and treadmill performance of healthy women in relation to age. Circulation. 1978;57:79–84[Medline]
  12. Wilmore JH, Freund BJ, Joyner MJ, et al. Acute response to submaximal and maximal exercise consequent to beta-adrenergic blockade: implications for the prescription of exercise. Am J Cardiol. 1985;55:135D–141D[CrossRef][Medline]
  13. Graettinger WF, Smith DH, Neutel JM, Myers J, Froelicher VF, Weber MA. Relationship of left ventricular structure to maximal heart rate during exercise. Chest. 1995;107:341–345[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  14. Jose AD, Collison D. The normal range and determinants of the intrinsic heart rate in man. Cardiovasc Res. 1970;4:160–167[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  15. de Marneffe M, Jacobs P, Haardt R, Englert M. Variations of normal sinus node function in relation to age: role of autonomic influence. Eur Heart J. 1986;7:662–672[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  16. Shi X, Stevens GH, Foresman BH, Stern SA, Raven PB. Autonomic nervous system control of the heart: endurance exercise training. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1995;27:1406–1413[Medline]



This article has been cited by other articles:


Home page
 Am. J. Clin. Nutr.Home page
M.-C. Gomez-Cabrera, E. Domenech, M. Romagnoli, A. Arduini, C. Borras, F. V Pallardo, J. Sastre, and J. Vina
Oral administration of vitamin C decreases muscle mitochondrial biogenesis and hampers training-induced adaptations in endurance performance
Am. J. Clinical Nutrition, January 1, 2008; 87(1): 142 - 149.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

Home page
 J. Physiol.Home page
H. Tanaka and D. R. Seals
Endurance exercise performance in Masters athletes: age-associated changes and underlying physiological mechanisms
J. Physiol., January 1, 2008; 586(1): 55 - 63.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

Home page
 Am. J. Physiol. Heart Circ. Physiol.Home page
J. Sugawara, H. Komine, K. Hayashi, M. Yoshizawa, T. Otsuki, N. Shimojo, T. Miyauchi, T. Yokoi, S. Maeda, and H. Tanaka
Systemic {alpha}-adrenergic and nitric oxide inhibition on basal limb blood flow: effects of endurance training in middle-aged and older adults
Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol, September 1, 2007; 293(3): H1466 - H1472.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

Home page
 J. Appl. Physiol.Home page
S. Brage, U. Ekelund, N. Brage, M. A. Hennings, K. Froberg, P. W. Franks, and N. J. Wareham
Hierarchy of individual calibration levels for heart rate and accelerometry to measure physical activity
J Appl Physiol, August 1, 2007; 103(2): 682 - 692.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

Home page
 J. Appl. Physiol.Home page
N. R. Stob, C. Bell, M. A. van Baak, and D. R. Seals
Thermic effect of food and beta-adrenergic thermogenic responsiveness in habitually exercising and sedentary healthy adult humans
J Appl Physiol, August 1, 2007; 103(2): 616 - 622.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

Home page
 NEJMHome page
M. Haykowsky and W. Tymchak
Superior Athletic Performance Two Decades after Cardiac Transplantation
N. Engl. J. Med., May 10, 2007; 356(19): 2007 - 2008.
[Full Text] [PDF]

Home page
 Am. J. Clin. Nutr.Home page
A. M Hill, J. D Buckley, K. J Murphy, and P. R. Howe
Combining fish-oil supplements with regular aerobic exercise improves body composition and cardiovascular disease risk factors
Am. J. Clinical Nutrition, May 1, 2007; 85(5): 1267 - 1274.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

Home page
 DiabetesHome page
B. Ukropcova, O. Sereda, L. de Jonge, I. Bogacka, T. Nguyen, H. Xie, G. A. Bray, and S. R. Smith
Family History of Diabetes Links Impaired Substrate Switching and Reduced Mitochondrial Content in Skeletal Muscle
Diabetes, March 1, 2007; 56(3): 720 - 727.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

Home page
 J. Appl. Physiol.Home page
E. P. Weiss, S. B. Racette, D. T. Villareal, L. Fontana, K. Steger-May, K. B. Schechtman, S. Klein, A. A. Ehsani, J. O. Holloszy, and Washington University School of Medicine CALERIE G
Lower extremity muscle size and strength and aerobic capacity decrease with caloric restriction but not with exercise-induced weight loss
J Appl Physiol, February 1, 2007; 102(2): 634 - 640.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

Home page
 Am. J. Physiol. Endocrinol. Metab.Home page
P. Lucotti, E. Setola, L. D. Monti, E. Galluccio, S. Costa, E. P. Sandoli, I. Fermo, G. Rabaiotti, R. Gatti, and P. Piatti
Beneficial effects of a long-term oral L-arginine treatment added to a hypocaloric diet and exercise training program in obese, insulin-resistant type 2 diabetic patients
Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab, November 1, 2006; 291(5): E906 - E912.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

Home page
 JAMAHome page
M. R. Carnethon, M. Gulati, and P. Greenland
Prevalence and Cardiovascular Disease Correlates of Low Cardiorespiratory Fitness in Adolescents and Adults
JAMA, December 21, 2005; 294(23): 2981 - 2988.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

Home page
 J. Appl. Physiol.Home page
S. J. Ridout, B. A. Parker, and D. N. Proctor
Age and regional specificity of peak limb vascular conductance in women
J Appl Physiol, December 1, 2005; 99(6): 2067 - 2074.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

Home page
 J Am Coll CardiolHome page
B. J.W. Chow, K. Ananthasubramaniam, R. A. deKemp, M. M. Dalipaj, R. S.B. Beanlands, and T. D. Ruddy
Comparison of treadmill exercise versus dipyridamole stress with myocardial perfusion imaging using rubidium-82 positron emission tomography
J. Am. Coll. Cardiol., April 19, 2005; 45(8): 1227 - 1234.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

Home page
 J. Gerontol. A Biol. Sci. Med. Sci.Home page
D. L. Huggett, D. M. Connelly, and T. J. Overend
Maximal Aerobic Capacity Testing of Older Adults: A Critical Review
J. Gerontol. A Biol. Sci. Med. Sci., January 1, 2005; 60(1): 57 - 66.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

Home page
 J. Appl. Physiol.Home page
D. N. Proctor, K. U. Le, and S. J. Ridout
Age and regional specificity of peak limb vascular conductance in men
J Appl Physiol, January 1, 2005; 98(1): 193 - 202.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

Home page
 Am. J. Clin. Nutr.Home page
K. A Varady, N. Ebine, C. A Vanstone, W. E Parsons, and P. J. Jones
Plant sterols and endurance training combine to favorably alter plasma lipid profiles in previously sedentary hypercholesterolemic adults after 8 wk
Am. J. Clinical Nutrition, November 1, 2004; 80(5): 1159 - 1166.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

Home page
 CLIN PEDIATRHome page
M. Loftin, M. Sothern, C. Van Vrancken, A. O'Hanlon, and J. Udall
Effect of Obesity Status on Heart Rate Peak in Female Youth
Clinical Pediatrics, July 1, 2003; 42(6): 505 - 510.
[Abstract] [PDF]

Home page
 J. Appl. Physiol.Home page
J. C. Baldi, J. L. Aoina, H. C. Oxenham, W. Bagg, and R. N. Doughty
Reduced exercise arteriovenous O2 difference in Type 2 diabetes
J Appl Physiol, March 1, 2003; 94(3): 1033 - 1038.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

Home page
 Eur Heart JHome page
M. Kindermann, B. Schwaab, N. Finkler, S. Schaller, M. Bohm, and G. Frohlig
Defining the optimum upper heart rate limit during exercise. A study in pacemaker patients with heart failure
Eur. Heart J., August 2, 2002; 23(16): 1301 - 1308.
[Abstract] [PDF]

Home page
 J. Appl. Physiol.Home page
I. Eskurza, A. J. Donato, K. L. Moreau, D. R. Seals, and H. Tanaka
Changes in maximal aerobic capacity with age in endurance-trained women: 7-yr follow-up
J Appl Physiol, June 1, 2002; 92(6): 2303 - 2308.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

Home page
 CMAJHome page
S. Atwal, J. Porter, and P. MacDonald
Cardiovascular effects of strenuous exercise in adult recreational hockey: the Hockey Heart Study
Can. Med. Assoc. J., February 1, 2002; 166(3): 303 - 307.
[Abstract] [Full Text]

Home page
 CMAJHome page
M. A. Mittleman
The double-edged blade of recreational hockey
Can. Med. Assoc. J., February 1, 2002; 166(3): 331 - 332.
[Full Text]

This Article
Right arrow Abstract Freely available
Right arrow Figures Only
Right arrow Full Text (PDF)
Right arrow Alert me when this article is cited
Right arrow Alert me if a correction is posted
Services
Right arrow Email this article to a friend
Right arrow Similar articles in this journal
Right arrow Similar articles in PubMed
Right arrow Alert me to new issues of the journal
Right arrow Download to citation manager
Citing Articles
Right arrow Citing Articles via HighWire
Right arrow Citing Articles via Google Scholar
Google Scholar
Right arrow Articles by Tanaka, H.
Right arrow Articles by Seals, D. R.
Right arrow Search for Related Content
PubMed
Right arrow PubMed Citation
Right arrow Articles by Tanaka, H.
Right arrow Articles by Seals, D. R.

HOME SUBSCRIPTIONS CURRENT ISSUE PAST ISSUES CARDIOSOURCE SEARCH HELP FEEDBACK