CLINICAL STUDIES
The prognostic implications of renal insufficiency in asymptomatic and symptomatic patients with left ventricular systolic dysfunction
Daniel L. Dries, MD, MPH*,
Derek V. Exner, MD, MPH ,
Michael J. Domanski, MD,
Barry Greenberg, MD and
Lynne W. Stevenson, MD, FACC*
* Division of Cardiology, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
Clinical Trials Research Group, Division of Epidemiology and Clinical Applications, National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
Division of Cardiology, University of California at San Diego, San Diego, California, USA
Manuscript received January 28, 1999;
revised manuscript received November 10, 1999,
accepted November 15, 1999.
Reprint requests and correspondence: Dr. Daniel L. Dries, Cardiomyopathy Transplant Fellow, Division of Cardiology, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, 75 Francis Street, Boston, Massachusetts 02115
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Abstract
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OBJECTIVES
The present analysis examines the prognostic implications of moderate renal insufficiency in patients with asymptomatic and symptomatic left ventricular systolic dysfunction.
BACKGROUND
Chronic elevations in intracardiac filling pressures may lead to progressive ventricular dilation and heart failure progression. The ability to maintain fluid balance and prevent increased intracardiac filling pressures is critically dependent on the adequacy of renal function.
METHODS
This is a retrospective analysis of the Studies of Left Ventricular Dysfunction (SOLVD) Trials, in which moderate renal insufficiency is defined as a baseline creatinine clearance <60 ml/min, as estimated from the Cockroft-Gault equation.
RESULTS
In the SOLVD Prevention Trial, multivariate analyses demonstrated moderate renal insufficiency to be associated with an increased risk for all-cause mortality (Relative Risk [RR] 1.41; p = 0.001), largely explained by an increased risk for pump-failure death (RR 1.68;p = 0.007) and the combined end point death or hospitalization for heart failure (RR 1.33; p = 0.001). Likewise, in the Treatment Trial, multivariate analyses demonstrated moderate renal insufficiency to be associated with an increased risk for all-cause mortality (RR 1.41;p = 0.001), also largely explained by an increased risk for pump-failure death (RR 1.49; p = 0.007) and the combined end point death or hospitalization for heart failure (RR 1.45; p = 0.001).
CONCLUSIONS
Even moderate degrees of renal insufficiency are independently associated with an increased risk for all-cause mortality in patients with heart failure, largely explained by an increased risk of heart failure progression. These data suggest that, rather than simply being a marker of the severity of underlying disease, the adequacy of renal function may be a primary determinant of compensation in patients with heart failure, and therapy capable of improving renal function may delay disease progression.
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Abbreviations and Acronyms
| | BUN | = blood urea nitrogen | | CI | = confidence interval | | CrCl | = creatinine clearance | | LVEF | = left ventricular ejection fraction | | NYHA | = New York Heart Association | | RR | = relative risk | | SOLVD | = Studies of Left Ventricular Dysfunction |
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The adequacy of renal function is of central importance to the syndrome of congestive heart failure (1). The prognostic implications of moderate renal insufficiency in patients with heart failure, in particular those patients with asymptomatic left ventricular dysfunction, are not well described. Impaired renal function may be associated with adverse outcomes in heart failure because it is a marker for patients with more severe heart failure or a greater burden of coexistent disease. However, it is possible that the presence of renal insufficiency may have a causal role in progression of heart failure.
We conducted a retrospective analysis of participants in the Studies of Left Ventricular Dysfunction (SOLVD) Prevention and Treatment Trials (2,3) to: 1) determine the frequency of moderate renal insufficiency in patients with asymptomatic and symptomatic moderate to severe left ventricular dysfunction, 2) test the hypothesis that moderate renal insufficiency might be independently associated with progression of heart failure, and 3) test the hypothesis that moderate renal insufficiency might be independently associated with all-cause mortality.
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Methods
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Design of the SOLVD trials.
The SOLVD Prevention and Treatment Trials were designed to study the effect of enalapril on survival in patients with asymptomatic and symptomatic heart failure, respectively. There were 4,228 participants in the Prevention Trial, designed to include patients with asymptomatic left ventricular systolic dysfunction, although close to one-third of the participants were classified as New York Heart Association (NYHA) class II. There were 2,569 participants in the SOLVD Treatment Trial, which consisted uniformly of symptomatic left ventricular dysfunction, predominantly NYHA class II and III.
To be eligible for participation in either trial, the patients were required to have a recently documented ejection fraction  35%. Participants were randomized to the angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor enalapril or placebo. Exclusion criteria included: active angina pectoris requiring surgical intervention, unstable angina, myocardial infarction within one month, renal failure (defined as a creatinine value >2.0 mg/dl) or severe pulmonary disease. The design and rationale for these trials has been previously described (4).
Determination of renal function.
All participants had a baseline creatinine value obtained as part of the screening process to determine eligibility. The baseline creatinine value in the SOLVD participants was determined when the potential participants were considered clinically stable; therefore, it did not reflect, if elevated, decompensated heart failure. Patients with a creatinine value >2 mg/dl (177 µmol/liter) were excluded from each of the SOLVD Trials. However, there were some patients with a creatinine value >2 mg/dl (177 µmol/liter). This included 23 patients randomized in the Prevention Trial and 22 participants randomized in the Treatment Trial with a baseline creatinine between 2 and 2.2 mg/dl. These participants were included in this analysis.
The creatinine clearance (CrCl) was estimated for each participant according to the Cockroft-Gault equation using the baseline weight and serum creatinine in each participant. For men, the CrCl was estimated as follows: CrCl = ([140 – age in years] x weight in kg)/(72 x creatinine in mg/dl). For women, the value of CrCl was multiplied by 0.85, as specified in the Cockroft-Gault equation.
For the purposes of our primary analysis, we defined "moderate" renal insufficiency as an estimated CrCl <60/ml/min before data analysis. In addition, the association of renal insufficiency with the risk for progression of heart failure and mortality would be explored for other values of estimated CrCl, including an analysis of the estimated baseline CrCl in each participant as a continuous variable. Our predefined definition of moderate renal insufficiency (CrCl 60 ml/min) represented a 27% decrease from the average CrCl for the entire cohort in the SOLVD Prevention Trial and a 5% decrease from the average CrCl for the entire cohort in the SOLVD Treatment Trial.
Definitions of end points.
For this analysis, we defined pump-failure death to include "pump-failure" as classified by the SOLVD investigators, as well as those deaths classified as "arrhythmic with some antecedent worsening heart failure." We defined arrhythmic death to include only those deaths classified by the SOLVD investigators as "arrhythmic with no antecedent worsening heart failure." We predefined two measures of the rate of progression of left ventricular systolic dysfunction, whether asymptomatic or symptomatic, to include the risk for: 1) pump-failure death, and 2) the composite end point, death (all-cause mortality) or hospitalization for heart failure. The risk for each event was assessed using a Cox-proportional hazards model to adjust for differences in time to each event.
Data collection, definitions and statistical methods
Baseline data were collected at the time of enrollment into either of the SOLVD trials. Group comparisons of continuous data used Student t test, assuming unequal variances in the comparison groups when appropriate. Group comparisons of categorical data used the chi-squared statistic. A p value 0.05 was considered statistically significant. Kaplan-Meier survival curves were constructed comparing patients with and without renal insufficiency in each trial and formally compared using the log-rank statistic.
For the multivariate analyses, age and left-ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF) were analyzed as continuous variables. The following variables were analyzed as dichotomous (yes/no) variables: diabetes, prior hypertension, prior angina, prior stroke. The etiology of left ventricular dysfunction was also analyzed as a dichotomous variable, comparing patients classified with an ischemic etiology to those classified with a nonischemic etiology of left ventricular dysfunction. The severity of clinical symptoms, as assessed by the NYHA classification scheme, was also adjusted for as a dichotomous variable: NYHA class II versus class I in the Prevention Trial and NYHA class III/IV with NYHA class I/II in the Treatment Trial.
Medication use was determined at baseline in each participant. The following medications were adjusted for in the analyses as dichotomous (yes/no) variables, indicating the use or non-use of the medication: antiplatelet agents, diuretics, antiarrhythmic drugs and digoxin. We also adjusted according to randomization assignment to enalapril or placebo.
Univariate and multivariate relationships were investigated using a Cox proportional-hazards model; two-sided 95% confidence intervals (CIs) were constructed around each point estimate of relative risk (RR) and a p value 0.05 was considered statistically significant. In the multivariate analyses, the following covariates were adjusted for: age, gender, LVEF, NYHA functional class, prior hypertension, diabetes, stroke, etiology (ischemic vs. nonischemic), use of antiplatelet agents, antiarrhythmic drugs, diuretics, digoxin and randomization to enalapril or placebo. Statistical analyses were conducted using the Statistical Analysis Software (SAS) version 6.12 (Cary, North Carolina).
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Results
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Baseline characteristics.
The baseline characteristics in participants with a CrCl <60 ml/min compared with those with a CrCl  60 ml/min are displayed in Table 1. In each trial, the participants with moderate renal insufficiency (CrCl <60 ml/min) had more advanced symptoms of heart failure, as measured by the NYHA class, but there was no significant difference in the average LVEF between the two groups. Prior hypertension and nonfatal strokes were more common in each trial in the patients with moderate renal insufficiency. There were no significant differences between the groups in either trial in the prevalence of prior myocardial infarction, the assignment of an ischemic etiology as the primary cause of left ventricular function or diabetes. The average blood urea nitrogen (BUN)/creatinine ratio was lower in the group with moderate renal insufficiency in the Prevention Trial, and there was no significant difference in the BUN/creatinine ratio in the two groups in the Treatment Trial.
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Table 1 Baseline Characteristics According to Baseline Creatinine Clearance in the SOLVD Prevention and Treatment Trials
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Causes of death in each group. (table 2)
Prevention trial
In the Prevention Trial, the participants with moderate renal insufficiency (CrCl <60 ml/min) experienced greater all-cause mortality (22.1% vs. 13.6%), pump-failure death (7.5% vs. 3.7%) and the composite end point death or hospitalization for worsening heart failure (30.7% vs. 20.4% [all log-rank p values <0.001]) compared with those without. There were more arrhythmic deaths in the group with renal insufficiency (6.1% vs. 4.5%, p = 0.03).
Treatment trial
In the Treatment Trial, the participants with moderate renal insufficiency (CrCl <60 ml/min) demonstrated greater all-cause mortality (47% vs. 32.9%), pump-failure death (24.1% vs. 15.6%) and the combined end point death or hospitalization for heart failure (61.8% vs. 48.5% [all log-rank p values <0.001]). However, in the SOLVD Treatment Trial, there was no significant difference in arrhythmic deaths in those with (CrCl <60 ml/min) and without (CrCl 60 ml/min) mild renal insufficiency, respectively (8.8% vs. 8.6%, p = 0.47).
Univariate analysis.
Prevention trial
In the Prevention Trial, univariate analyses demonstrated that moderate renal insufficiency was associated with an increased risk for all-cause mortality (RR 1.78; 95% CI 1.48 to 2.13; p = 0.0001), pump-failure death (RR 2.22; 95% CI 1.61 to 3.07; p = 0.0001), arrhythmic death (RR 1.47; 95% CI 1.05 to 2.06; p = 0.02) and the combined end point death or hospitalization for worsening heart failure (RR 1.65; 95% CI 1.42 to 1.92; p = 0.0001). When the estimated CrCl was analyzed as a continuous variable in univariate analysis, it also was significantly associated with an increased risk for all-cause mortality (RR per 30 ml/min decrease in CrCl 1.42; 95% CI 1.27 to 1.58; p = 0.0001). Other variables in the SOLVD Prevention Trial associated with an increased risk for all-cause mortality on univariate analysis included: age, ejection fraction, a higher NYHA functional class, diabetes, prior stroke, a history of hypertension and the baseline use of any antiarrhythmic agent, diuretics and digoxin. Variables associated with a decreased all-cause mortality risk included: use of antiplatelet agents and an ischemic etiology of left ventricular dysfunction.
Treatment trial
In the Treatment Trial, univariate analyses demonstrated that moderate renal insufficiency was associated with an increased risk for all-cause mortality (RR 1.59; 95% CI 1.38 to 1.82; p = 0.0001), pump-failure death (RR 1.73; 95% CI 1.42 to 2.10; p = 0.0001) and the combined end point death or hospitalization for worsening heart failure (RR 1.49; 95% CI 1.33 to 1.68; p = 0.0001) but not arrhythmic death (RR 1.12; 95% CI 0.83 to 1.51; p = 0.48). When the estimated CrCl was analyzed as a continuous variable in univariate analysis, it was significantly associated with an increased risk for all-cause mortality (RR per 30 ml/min decrease in CrCl 1.15; 95% CI 1.08 to 24; p = 0.0001) Other variables in the SOLVD Treatment Trial associated with an increased risk for all-cause mortality on univariate analysis included: age, ejection fraction, a greater NYHA functional class, diabetes and baseline use of antiarrhythmic agents, diuretics and digoxin. Those associated with a decreased all-cause mortality risk included: use of antiplatelet agents and randomization to enalapril.
Multivariate analyses.
Prevention trial
In the Prevention Trial (Table 3), despite multivariate adjustment for differences in disease severity, comorbidities and baseline medication use, moderate renal insufficiency remained independently associated with an increased risk for all-cause mortality (RR 1.41; 95% CI 1.15 to 1.74; p = 0.001), pump-failure death (RR 1.68; 95% CI 1.16 to 2.44; p = 0.007) and the composite end point of death or hospitalization for heart failure (RR 1.33; 95% CI 1.12 to 1.59; p = 0.001) but not arrhythmic death (RR 1.27; 95% CI 0.87 to 1.87; p = 0.22). When the CrCl was analyzed as a continuous variable in multivariate analyses, a decline in CrCl remained significantly associated with an increased risk for all-cause mortality (RR, per 30 ml/min decrease in CrCl, 1.24; 95% CI 1.09 to 1.42; p = 0.001), pump-failure death (RR, per 30 ml/min decrease in CrCl, 1.33; 95% CI 1.05 to 1.71; p = 0.02) and the combined outcome of death or hospitalization for heart failure (RR, per 30 ml/min decrease in CrCl, 1.23; 95% CI 1.10 to 1.36; p = 0.0002) but not arrhythmic death (p = 0.26).
Treatment trial
In the Treatment Trial (Table 4), multivariate analyses demonstrated that moderate renal insufficiency was associated with an increased risk for all-cause mortality (RR 1.41; 95% CI 1.20 to 1.65; p = 0.0001), pump-failure death (RR 1.49; 95% CI 1.19 to 1.86; p = 0.0005) and the composite end point of death or hospitalization for heart failure (RR 1.45; 95% CI 1.27 to 1.67; p = 0.0001) but not arrhythmic death (RR 1.17; 95% CI 0.83 to 1.64; p = 0.37). When CrCl was entered as a continuous variable, adjusting for the same variables, a decline in CrCl remained significantly associated with an increased risk for all-cause mortality (RR, per 30 ml/min decrease in CrCl, 1.22; 95% CI 1.11 to 1.35; p = 0.0001), pump-failure death (RR, per 30 ml/min decrease in CrCl, 1.21; 95% CI 1.05 to 1.40; p = 0.009) and the combined outcome of death or hospitalization for heart failure (RR, per 30 ml/min decrease in CrCl, 1.12; 95% CI 1.04 to 1.22; p = 0.007). There was a trend for an increased risk for arrhythmic death (RR, per 30 ml/min decrease in CrCl, 1.20; 95% CI 0.97 to 1.47; p = 0.08).
Risk associated with degree of renal insufficiency
Table 5 displays the risk for all-cause mortality, pump-failure death and the combined end point (death or hospitalization for worsening heart failure) associated with varying degrees of renal insufficiency. As demonstrated in each trial, even a CrCl 70 ml/min was associated with a significant increase in mortality risk. In the Prevention Trial, the risk for mortality and disease progression clearly increases as the severity of renal insufficiency increases. In the Treatment Trial, a similar trend is demonstrated, except for the group with a CrCl 40 ml/min.
Differences in baseline potassium and calcium channel-blocker use
We also conducted an analysis that adjusted for baseline serum potassium, in addition to the other variables. Despite doing so, moderate renal insufficiency (CrCl <60 ml/min) remained associated with an increased risk for mortality in the Prevention (RR 1.43; 95% CI 1.16 to 1.77; p = 0.0008) and Treatment (RR 1.42; 95% CI 1.21 to 1.66; p = 0.0001) Trials. Finally, despite adjusting for differences in the use of calcium channel blockers, which was more frequent in the participants with moderate renal insufficiency, the presence of moderate renal insufficiency remained independently associated with an increased risk for all-cause mortality in the Prevention (RR 1.34; 95% CI 1.11 to 1.63; p = 0.003) and Treatment Trials (RR 1.29; 95% CI 1.12 to 1.49; p = 0.0005).
Results in Prevention Trial participants not using diuretics at baseline
We conducted an analysis limited to the 3,050 SOLVD Prevention Trial participants not using any type of diuretic at baseline. In this cohort, a CrCl <60 ml/min, compared with a CrCl 60 ml/min, was associated with an increased risk for all-cause mortality on univariate analysis (RR 1.66; 95% CI 1.34 to 2.06; p = 0.0001). Upon multivariate analysis, a CrCl <60 ml/min in the patients not using diuretics at baseline remained independently associated with an increased risk for all-cause mortality (RR 1.33; 95% CI 1.04 to 1.70; p = 0.02) and trends for an increased risk for pump-failure death (RR 1.42; 95% CI 0.91 to 2.21; p = 0.11) and the combined end point of death or heart failure hospitalization (RR 1.20; 95% CI 0.98–1.47; p = 0.08).
Adjusting for differences in the discontinuation of study drug.
Prevention trial
We conducted a multivariate analysis that only included the participants in the SOLVD Prevention Trial who did not discontinue use of the study drug enalapril. In this analysis, the participants with moderate renal insufficiency were at increased risk for all-cause mortality (RR 1.52; 95% CI 1.19 to 1.95; p = 0.0009), pump-failure death (RR 2.21; 95% CI 1.38 to 3.54; p = 0.0009) and the combined end point death or hospitalization for heart failure (RR 1.43; 95% CI 1.16 to 1.78; p = 0.001).
Treatment trial
In the SOLVD Treatment Trial, the drop-out rate from protocol therapy was not significantly greater in those with moderate renal insufficiency (CrCl <60 ml/min) compared with those without (CrCl 60 ml/min) (37.8 vs. 35%, p = 0.23). The results of multivariate analyses limited to the SOLVD Treatment Trial participants remaining on protocol therapy demonstrated that moderate renal insufficiency remained independently associated with an increased risk for all-cause mortality (RR 1.39; 95% CI 1.17 to 1.67; p = 0.0003), pump-failure death (RR 1.45; 95% CI 1.12 to 1.88; p = 0.005) and the combined end point of death or hospitalization for worsening heart failure (RR 1.54; 95% CI 1.31 to 1.82; p = 0.0001).
Consistency of findings across subgroups
We conducted stratified multivariate analyses within subgroups. There was a consistent and independent association of moderate renal insufficiency with an increased risk for all-cause mortality in the patients with a prior history of hypertension (RR 1.52; 95% CI 1.25 to 1.83; p = 0.001) as well as those participants without (RR 1.34; 95% CI 1.14 to 1.59; p = 0.0006), participants with an ischemic etiology of left ventricular dysfunction (RR 1.32; 95% CI 1.14 to 1.52; p = 0.0002) and those participants with a nonischemic etiology of left ventricular dysfunction (RR 1.75; 95% CI 1.36 to 2.27; p = 0.0001), participants with diabetes (RR 1.87; 95% CI 1.46 to 2.39; p = 0.0001) as well as those without diabetes (RR 1.29; 95% CI 1.11 to 1.49; p = 0.007). Moderate renal insufficiency remained associated with an increased risk for mortality in those participants randomized to treatment with angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor (RR 1.53; 95% CI 1.27 to 1.83; p = 0.0001) or placebo (RR 1.33; 95% CI 1.12 to 1.58; p = 0.002).
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Discussion
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These data suggest that impaired renal function is independently associated with all-cause mortality in patients with mild to moderate heart failure and that even moderate degrees of renal impairment are of prognostic importance in patients with asymptomatic and symptomatic left ventricular systolic dysfunction. The association of moderate renal insufficiency with an increased risk for pump failure death and the composite end point of death or hospitalization for heart failure suggests that moderate renal dysfunction is independently associated with an increased risk for heart failure progression. In particular, it appears that the adequacy of renal function is important in delaying progression of asymptomatic or mildly symptomatic left ventricular dysfunction.
Potential mechanisms of the increased mortality in patients with renal insufficiency.
Marker for more severe heart failure
The patients with moderate renal insufficiency did have evidence of more severe left ventricular dysfunction and a greater prevalence of comorbidities. However, moderate renal insufficiency remained independently associated with adverse outcomes despite adjusting for these differences. The increased creatinine that accompanies worsening heart failure is often thought to represent prerenal azotemia and is associated with an increased BUN/creatinine ratio. Interestingly, in the SOLVD Prevention Trial, the average BUN/creatinine ratio for the participants with moderate renal insufficiency was slightly, but significantly, lower than those without. In the Treatment Trial, there was no significant difference in the average BUN/creatinine ratio for those with and without moderate renal insufficiency.
Greater prevalence of coexistent disease
The treatment of the comorbid diseases that may have caused the renal insufficiency may have influenced outcomes. For example, hypertension and the use of calcium-channel blockers were more common in the patients with renal insufficiency. Some data suggest that calcium-channel blockers may be associated with adverse outcomes in patients with ischemic cardiomyopathy (5,6), in particular those with reduced ejection fractions. Nonetheless, adjusting for differences in the use of calcium channel blockers at baseline did not reduce the association of renal dysfunction with an increased risk for mortality.
Differences in discontinuation of angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitor therapy
The participants with baseline renal insufficiency may have been more likely to require discontinuation of enalapril due to worsening renal function, and this may have accounted for the increased mortality. To explore this, we studied the prognostic implications of moderate renal insufficiency in those patients who did not discontinue use of enalapril after randomization into the SOLVD Trials. In these participants, moderate renal insufficiency remained independently associated with an increased risk for all-cause mortality, pump-failure death and the combined end point death or heart failure hospitalization.
Causal relationship due to cardiorenal interaction
It is reasonable to consider the hypothesis that moderate renal insufficiency may be causally related to a greater rate of progression of left ventricular systolic dysfunction and increased mortality risk. There are experimental data suggesting that moderate renal insufficiency may play a causative role in progression to symptomatic heart failure. For example, in a canine model (7) of pacing-induced asymptomatic left ventricular dysfunction, CrCl, sodium excretion and the natriuretic response to volume expansion were preserved despite reductions in cardiac output, mean arterial blood pressure and elevations in systemic vascular resistance, plasma norepinephrine and atrial natriuretic factor. In early LV dysfunction, normally functioning kidneys are able to maintain sodium balance and prevent volume expansion. An impairment in renal function may lead to sodium and fluid retention, increases in cardiac filling pressures and progressive ventricular dilation.
Comparison with prior studies
In a study (8) of 190 heart failure patients with a mean LVEF of 30% and NYHA class II–III symptoms, two-year mortality was 32% and serum creatinine was one of seven independent predictors of mortality. Patients with a creatinine value >121 µmol/liter had a 2.9 fold increased risk of death compared with patients with lower creatinine values. In another study (9), the clinical findings related to prognosis were prospectively examined in 300 outpatients with heart failure diagnosed on case history data, LVEF 40% or a cardiothoracic ratio 50%. The baseline characteristics of survivors and nonsurvivors after one year (16% mortality) were compared. The mean creatinine of those who died was 108 ±20.1 µmol/liter compared with 105.8 ± 27.7 µmol/liter in survivors. The relative risk of death was calculated at 2.03 for those with higher creatinine values. Other more common prognostic factors were not analyzed. In the PROMISE Study (10), which assessed the long-term efficacy of milrinone in 1,088 patients with heart failure followed for a median of 6.1 months, patients with a baseline creatinine >1.3 mg/dl treated with milrinone demonstrated a trend for an increased risk for mortality (RR 1.32; 95% CI 0.98–1.78; p = 0.06) compared with those with a creatinine 1.3 mg/dl. Abnormal renal function as measured by an elevated creatinine was independently associated with the development of heart failure in a case-control study of hypertensive Nigerian patients, despite group matching on important variables such as age, gender, level of blood pressure and body mass index as well as adjustment for hypertensive fundal changes (11).
Study limitations
Medication use was determined at baseline, and it is likely to have changed during the course of the SOLVD Trials. Despite adjusting for potentially confounding explanatory variables, all retrospective analyses are limited by the potentially confounding influence of variables we did not account for as well as residual confounding from variables that we did adjust for. There is likely to be misclassification of specific modes of death in the heart failure population (12), which is why we defined all-cause mortality as a primary end point. Finally, in our estimation of CrCl using the Cockroft-Gault equation, we used the baseline weight of each participant. The Cockroft-Gault equation is based upon ideal body weight and is not validated in patients with heart failure. It is likely that the baseline weight in some of the participants, in particular those in the SOLVD Treatment Trial, was greater than ideal weight due to fluid retention. However, this would lead to an overestimation of CrCl since the weight is in the numerator of the Cockroft-Gault equation. Therefore, if the patients with most severe heart failure were indeed more likely to have baseline weights above ideal, the direction of the bias would be in the opposite direction from the results demonstrated in this analysis.
Clinical implications
These data suggest that moderate renal insufficiency is common even in patients with absent to mild symptoms of heart failure and may itself lead to a greater risk for progression of heart failure as well as overall mortality. This implies that therapy capable of improving or stabilizing renal function may improve prognosis in patients with heart failure. Thus, we hope that these data will support future research aimed at elucidating the pathophysiology leading to renal insufficiency in heart failure and a better understanding of the mechanisms of the cardiorenal interaction.
Conclusions
Moderate renal insufficiency is independently associated with an increased risk for all cause mortality and heart failure progression in patients with asymptomatic and symptomatic left ventricular systolic dysfunction. Rather than simply being a marker of disease severity, these data suggest that moderate renal insufficiency may be causally related to an increased risk for mortality and progression of heart failure.
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K. Damman, T. Jaarsma, A. A. Voors, G. Navis, H. L. Hillege, D. J. van Veldhuisen, and on behalf of the COACH investigators
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S. Anwaruddin, D. M. Lloyd-Jones, A. Baggish, A. Chen, D. Krauser, R. Tung, C. Chae, and J. L. Januzzi Jr
Renal Function, Congestive Heart Failure, and Amino-Terminal Pro-Brain Natriuretic Peptide Measurement: Results From the ProBNP Investigation of Dyspnea in the Emergency Department (PRIDE) Study
J. Am. Coll. Cardiol.,
January 3, 2006;
47(1):
91 - 97.
[Abstract]
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N. A. Khan, I. Ma, C. R. Thompson, K. Humphries, D. N. Salem, M. J. Sarnak, and A. Levin
Kidney Function and Mortality among Patients with Left Ventricular Systolic Dysfunction
J. Am. Soc. Nephrol.,
January 1, 2006;
17(1):
244 - 253.
[Abstract]
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S. Anwaruddin, D. M. Lloyd-Jones, A. Baggish, A. Chen, D. Krauser, R. Tung, C. Chae, and J. L. Januzzi Jr
Renal Function, Congestive Heart Failure, and Amino-Terminal Pro-Brain Natriuretic Peptide Measurement: Results From the ProBNP Investigation of Dyspnea in the Emergency Department (PRIDE) Study
J. Am. Coll. Cardiol.,
December 13, 2005;
(2005)
j.jacc.2005.08.051v1.
[Abstract]
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J. C. Burnett Jr
Urocortin: Advancing the Neurohumoral Hypothesis of Heart Failure
Circulation,
December 6, 2005;
112(23):
3544 - 3546.
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R. de Silva, N. P. Nikitin, S. Bhandari, A. Nicholson, A. L. Clark, and J. G.F. Cleland
Atherosclerotic renovascular disease in chronic heart failure: should we intervene?
Eur. Heart J.,
August 2, 2005;
26(16):
1596 - 1605.
[Abstract]
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F. A. Masoudi, C. P. Gross, Y. Wang, S. S. Rathore, E. P. Havranek, J. M. Foody, and H. M. Krumholz
Adoption of Spironolactone Therapy for Older Patients With Heart Failure and Left Ventricular Systolic Dysfunction in the United States, 1998-2001
Circulation,
July 5, 2005;
112(1):
39 - 47.
[Abstract]
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L. W. Stevenson, A. Nohria, and L. Mielniczuk
Torrent or Torment From the Tubules?: Challenge of the Cardiorenal Connections
J. Am. Coll. Cardiol.,
June 21, 2005;
45(12):
2004 - 2007.
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R. Vanholder, Z. Massy, A. Argiles, G. Spasovski, F. Verbeke, N. Lameire, and for the European Uremic Toxin Work Group (EUTox)
Chronic kidney disease as cause of cardiovascular morbidity and mortality
Nephrol. Dial. Transplant.,
June 1, 2005;
20(6):
1048 - 1056.
[Abstract]
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Authors/Task Force Members, K. Swedberg, Writing Committee:, J. Cleland, H. Dargie, H. Drexler, F. Follath, M. Komajda, L. Tavazzi, O. A. Smiseth, et al.
Guidelines for the diagnosis and treatment of chronic heart failure: executive summary (update 2005): The Task Force for the Diagnosis and Treatment of Chronic Heart Failure of the European Society of Cardiology
Eur. Heart J.,
June 1, 2005;
26(11):
1115 - 1140.
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M. E. Ochiai, A. C.P. Barretto, M. T. Oliveira Jr., R. T. Munhoz, P. C. Morgado, and J. A.F. Ramires
Uric acid renal excretion and renal insufficiency in decompensated severe heart failure
Eur J Heart Fail,
June 1, 2005;
7(4):
468 - 474.
[Abstract]
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E. Stanton, M. Hansen, H. C. Wijeysundera, P. Kupchak, C. Hall, J. L. Rouleau, and On behalf of the PRAISE-2 study investigators
A direct comparison of the natriuretic peptides and their relationship to survival in chronic heart failure of a presumed non-ischaemic origin
Eur J Heart Fail,
June 1, 2005;
7(4):
557 - 565.
[Abstract]
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H. O. Ventura and M. R. Mehra
Improvement of heart failure after renal transplantation: The complex maze of cardio-renal interaction
J. Am. Coll. Cardiol.,
April 5, 2005;
45(7):
1061 - 1063.
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M. J. Sarnak, R. Katz, C. O. Stehman-Breen, L. F. Fried, N. S. Jenny, B. M. Psaty, A. B. Newman, D. Siscovick, M. G. Shlipak, and and the Cardiovascular Health Study*
Cystatin C Concentration as a Risk Factor for Heart Failure in Older Adults
Ann Intern Med,
April 5, 2005;
142(7):
497 - 505.
[Abstract]
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J. D. Sackner-Bernstein, H. A. Skopicki, and K. D. Aaronson
Risk of Worsening Renal Function With Nesiritide in Patients With Acutely Decompensated Heart Failure
Circulation,
March 29, 2005;
111(12):
1487 - 1491.
[Abstract]
[Full Text]
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G. L. Smith, M. G. Shlipak, E. P. Havranek, F. A. Masoudi, W. M. McClellan, J. M. Foody, S. S. Rathore, and H. M. Krumholz
Race and Renal Impairment in Heart Failure: Mortality in Blacks Versus Whites
Circulation,
March 15, 2005;
111(10):
1270 - 1277.
[Abstract]
[Full Text]
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P. J. Hauptman and E. P. Havranek
Integrating Palliative Care Into Heart Failure Care
Arch Intern Med,
February 28, 2005;
165(4):
374 - 378.
[Abstract]
[Full Text]
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M. G. Shlipak, M. J. Sarnak, R. Katz, L. Fried, S. Seliger, A. Newman, D. Siscovick, and C. Stehman-Breen
Cystatin-C and mortality in elderly persons with heart failure
J. Am. Coll. Cardiol.,
January 18, 2005;
45(2):
268 - 271.
[Abstract]
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M. P. Tokmakova, H. Skali, S. Kenchaiah, E. Braunwald, J. L. Rouleau, M. Packer, G. M. Chertow, L. A. Moye, M. A. Pfeffer, and S. D. Solomon
Chronic Kidney Disease, Cardiovascular Risk, and Response to Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme Inhibition After Myocardial Infarction: The Survival And Ventricular Enlargement (SAVE) Study
Circulation,
December 14, 2004;
110(24):
3667 - 3673.
[Abstract]
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G. Marenzi, G. Lauri, E. Assanelli, J. Campodonico, M. De Metrio, I. Marana, M. Grazi, F. Veglia, and A. L. Bartorelli
Contrast-induced nephropathy in patients undergoing primary angioplasty for acute myocardial infarction
J. Am. Coll. Cardiol.,
November 2, 2004;
44(9):
1780 - 1785.
[Abstract]
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J. Ezekowitz, F. A. McAlister, K. H. Humphries, C. M. Norris, M. Tonelli, W. A. Ghali, M. L. Knudtson, and APPROACH Investigators
The association among renal insufficiency, pharmacotherapy, and outcomes in 6,427 patients with heart failure and coronary artery disease
J. Am. Coll. Cardiol.,
October 19, 2004;
44(8):
1587 - 1592.
[Abstract]
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K. Bibbins-Domingo, F. Lin, E. Vittinghoff, E. Barrett-Connor, D. Grady, and M. G. Shlipak
Renal insufficiency as an independent predictor of mortality among women with heart failure
J. Am. Coll. Cardiol.,
October 19, 2004;
44(8):
1593 - 1600.
[Abstract]
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Abstract
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