CLINICAL STUDIES
Lack of association of a common polymorphism of the plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 gene with coronary artery disease and myocardial infarction
Jeffrey L. Anderson, MD, FACC*,
Joseph B. Muhlestein, MD, FACC*  ,
Jessica Habashi, BS* ,
John F. Carlquist, PhD* ,
Tami L. Bair, BS* ,
Sidney P. Elmer, BS* and
Brent P. Davis, BS*
* Department of Medicine, Division of Cardiology, University of Utah School of Medicine, Salt Lake City, Utah, USA
LDS Hospital, Salt Lake City, Utah, USA
Manuscript received December 29, 1998;
revised manuscript received May 4, 1999,
accepted August 12, 1999.
Reprint requests and correspondence: Dr. Jeffrey L. Anderson, Division of Cardiology, University of Utah School of Medicine, 50 North Medical Drive, Salt Lake City, Utah 84132
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Abstract
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OBJECTIVES
The study was done to assess whether the common polymorphic allele (4G) of the plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 (PAI-1) gene is associated with coronary artery disease (CAD) or myocardial infarction (MI).
BACKGROUND
Impaired fibrinolytic function has been associated with CAD and MI. Plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 plays a central role in intravascular thrombosis and thrombolysis; the common insertion/deletion polymorphism (4G/5G) of PAI-1 has been correlated with altered PAI-1 levels and proposed as a coronary risk factor.
METHODS
Blood was drawn and DNA extracted from 1,353 consenting patients undergoing coronary angiography. The 4G and 5G alleles of PAI-1 were amplified using specific primers. Amplified products were visualized by staining with ethidium bromide after electrophoresis in 1.5% agarose.
RESULTS
Patient age averaged 63.5 (SD 11.7) years; 70% were men, 28% had a history of MI, 66% had severe CAD (>60% stenosis), and 23% had no CAD or MI. Overall, the frequency of the 4G allele was 54.2%, and 78% of patients were 4G carriers. Genotypic distributions were: 4G/4G = 30.1%, 4G/5G = 47.9%, and 5G/5G = 21.8%. Neither carriage of 4G (CAD odds ratio [OR] = 1.08 [0.80 to 1.46], MI OR = 1.11 [0.83 to 1.49]) nor 4G/4G homozygosity (CAD OR = 1.07, MI OR = 0.98) was associated with CAD or MI. In multivariate analyses, risk factors associated with CAD were (in order): gender, age, smoking, diabetes, cholesterol, and hypertension; for MI, they were gender, smoking, and cholesterol.
CONCLUSIONS
A common PAI-1 polymorphism (4G) was not importantly associated with angiographic CAD or history of MI in a Caucasian population. Modest risk (i.e., OR <1.5), especially for MI, or risk in association with other factors, cannot be excluded.
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Abbreviations and Acronyms
| | ACS | = acute coronary syndrome | | bp | = base pair | | CAD | = coronary artery disease | | DNA | = deoxyribonucleic acid | | EDTA | = ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid | | MI | = myocardial infarction | | OR | = odds ratio | | PAI | = plasminogen activator inhibitor | | PCR | = polymerase chain reaction | | VLDL | = very low density lipoprotein |
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Plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 (PAI-1) plays a central role in modulating intravascular thrombosis and thrombolysis (1,2). Impaired fibrinolytic function has been found to be associated with high levels of circulating PAI-1 levels in patient groups at risk for premature atherosclerosis, with documented coronary artery disease (CAD), and with a history of myocardial infarction (MI) (3–8). A link between PAI-1 activity and atherogenic metabolic derangements (i.e., obesity, hypertriglyceridemia, and insulin resistance) has also been suggested (9,10). Experimental induction of endothelial injury has been found to stimulate PAI-1 expression, facilitating thrombosis (11). The possibility that genetically determined variability in PAI-1 expression might be a predisposing factor to coronary atherogenesis and thrombosis has been suggested (12).
Recently, a common insertion/deletion polymorphism (designated 4G/5G) of the promoter region of the PAI-1 gene has received attention as a potential risk factor for CAD and MI. The deletion allele (PAI-1*4G) has been associated with the inability to bind a transcriptional repressor protein, resulting in increased PAI-1 mRNA expression and increased circulating PAI-1 protein levels (12–15). In initial epidemiological studies, homozygous or heterozygous carriage of 4G has been reported to be associated variously with familial CAD, with progression to acute coronary syndrome (ACS), or with a history of MI, although an association with CAD per se has been inconsistent (12–16). Thus, we prospectively tested this hypothesis in a large, angiographically defined cohort.
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Methods
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Study objectives.
We tested whether carriage of the common polymorphic deletion allele of the PAI-1 gene, 4G, was associated with CAD or a history of MI.
Diseased and control subjects.
Study subjects came from a consecutive series of clinically stable consenting patients of any age and either gender undergoing coronary angiography. Subjects were enrolled after giving written informed consent to a blood draw for deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) extraction for use in genetic epidemiological studies, as approved by the hospital’s institutional review board. Indications for angiography included either suspected CAD or unrelated conditions requiring angiographic evaluation (e.g., valvular heart disease or cardiomyopathy). Subjects were residents of Utah, southwestern Idaho, or southeastern Wyoming, a region that is primarily of Northern European (Anglo-Scandinavian) extraction and genetically representative of North American Caucasians (17).
At the time of angiography, key demographic characteristics were recorded on standard data forms, including age, gender, and history of recent or remote MI (18). Coronary artery disease was assessed by review of angiograms by the patient’s cardiologist, who was uninformed as to PAI-1 genotype, using a format modified after the Coronary Artery Surgery Study protocol (18,19). Results were entered into a computerized database.
Patients were designated to have significant CAD if they had >60% stenosis of at least one coronary artery or major branch (n = 898) and no CAD if <10% stenosis was present (n = 329). Patients with minor CAD (10% to 60% stenosis; n = 126) were designated as having "indeterminate" CAD status and excluded from CAD analyses. Recent or remote MI was reported in 375 patients (347 of whom had severe, and 15 mild CAD). Patients without MI (n = 978) served as controls. A second MI comparison, in which those with severe CAD but without MI also were excluded as controls, gave similar results.
DNA extraction.
Approximately 20 to 30 ml of blood was withdrawn by venipuncture at the time of coronary angiography and collected in EDTA. The leukocyte buffy coat was separated by centrifugation and genomic DNA extracted using a standard phenol:chloroform method as previously described (20,21).
DNA genotyping.
To identify the PAI-1 genotypes, polymerase chain reaction (PCR) amplification of the promoter region containing the 4G/5G polymorphism was performed with the following primers, as previously published (22): - PAI-1: 5' AAG CTT TTA CCA TGG TAA CCC CTG GT 3'
- PAI-2: 5' TGC AGC CAG CCA CGT GAT TGT CTA 3'
- PAI-4GA: 5' GTC TGG ACA CGT GGG GA 3'
- PAI-5G: 5' GTC TGG ACA CGT GGG GG 3'
Both PAI-1 and PAI-2 amplify a 257-bp (base pair) product from either allele. The PAI-4G4 specifically amplifies the 4G allele, and PAI-5G specifically amplifies the 5G allele.
Amplification reactions were performed in 15-µl volumes and contained both the PAI-1 and PAI-2 primers and either the PAI-4GA or the PAI-5G primer. A hot-start protocol was used, beginning with a 94°C hold for 5 min followed by 40 cycles, each consisting of 1-min denaturation at 94°C, an annealing segment at 58°C for 45 s, and an extension segment at 72°C for 1 min. An additional extension for 15 min at 72°C was added after the last cycle, followed by a 4°C chill. The products were visualized by electrophoresis through a 1.5% agarose gel containing ethidium bromide at a concentration of 0.5 µg/ml. Each successful reaction produced the expected 257-bp control band and an additional band in either the PAI-4G4- or PAI-5G-containing reaction. Positive controls of sequence-verified genotype were included in each run. Representative gels for the three genotypes are shown in Figure 1.
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Figure 1 Examples of polymorphic genotyping using polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis of PCR amplification products. Gel A is a 5G homozygote; gel B is a 4G/5G heterozygote; gel C is a 4G homozygote. The higher molecular weight band (257 bp) in each gel run is the positive control.
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Statistical planning and analysis.
Power calculations indicated that to determine whether carriage of the 4G polymorphic allele in the PAI-1 gene was associated with CAD or MI with an odds ratio (OR) of at least 1.5 with a power of 80% at a 2-sided alpha level of 0.05 in a population with a carriage rate of the 4G allele of  75% would require samples of about 540 subjects per group (GB Stat for Windows). Accordingly, we assembled and studied a population of 1,353 subjects; 66% had severe CAD and 28%, a history of MI.
Allelic and genotypic frequencies were determined from observed counts. Comparisons between allelic and genotypic frequencies used chi-square analysis. Associations were assessed as OR and 95% confidence intervals (CI). Univariate and multivariate logistic regression was used to determine crude ORs for the genetic marker and adjusted ORs, conditioned on six major CAD risk factors: age, gender, smoking status, diabetic status, history of hypertension, and cholesterol concentration (SPSS 6.1, Chicago, Illinois).
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Results
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Characteristics of the patient groups.
A total of 1,353 subjects was studied. Age averaged 63.5 (SD 11.7) years (range 16 to 93); 375 had a history of MI, and 898 had severe CAD. Key patient characteristics are summarized by disease subgroup in Table 1. The CAD group differed from no-CAD controls in being older, more frequently male, diabetic, smokers, and hypertensive (by history). Those with MI were more frequently men and smokers but had lower (post-MI) blood pressure.
Genotypic and allelic frequencies among controls and diseased subjects.
Genotypic and allelic frequencies for the study groups are shown in Table 2. Genotypic distributions in the control groups conformed with Hardy-Weinberg expectations. The PAI-1*4G allelic frequency overall was 54.2%, and it did not differ between control and diseased groups. The PAI-1*4G allele was carried overall by 78.2% of subjects, with similar rates in the control and diseased groups. The 4G carriage was associated with an OR = 1.08 (CI 0.80 to 1.46) for CAD and an OR = 1.11 (CI 0.83 to 1.49) for MI (dominant model). The homozygotic 4G/4G genotype occurred in 30.2% of study subjects; again, there were no differences in frequency among subgroups. The 4G/4G homozygosity was associated with an OR = 1.07 (CI 0.75 to 1.52) for CAD and an OR = 0.98 (0.70 to 1.38) for MI (recessive model). Co-dominant modeling (assuming a dose-related effect of 4G) also failed to find an association of genotype with CAD (OR = 0.97) or MI (OR = 1.02).
Multivariate logistic modeling for CAD and MI.
To simultaneously condition associations with CAD or MI on seven key baseline characteristics, including genotype, multivariate conditional logistic regression was performed. With forced entry of 4G carrier status together with age, diabetes, hypertension, gender, and smoking status, the adjusted OR = 1.12 (0.83 to 1.51) for CAD and 1.06 (0.76 to 1.47) for MI. When cholesterol also was entered in the smaller cohort of CAD patients and controls with available levels (n = 774), the adjusted OR = 1.08 (0.75 to 1.54) for CAD and OR = 1.28 (0.83 to 1.97) for MI. None of the adjusted ORs differed significantly from 1.
The final logistic model for CAD included, in order of independent strength of association, gender, age, smoking status, diabetes, and history of hypertension (Table 3). For the cohort with measured cholesterol levels, the independent associates were gender, age, cholesterol levels, and history of hypertension.
For MI, the final logistic model included gender and smoking status (Table 3). For the cohort with measured cholesterol levels (n = 834), the model included smoking, gender, and cholesterol.
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Discussion
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Summary of study results.
In a large, angiographically defined population, no significant association was found between the PAI-1 4G/5G insertion/deletion polymorphism and the presence of CAD or MI (recent or remote). The point estimates of the ORs suggested associations with 4G carriage of the order of only 1.0 to 1.3, either unadjusted or adjusted for common baseline risk factors. Associations with ORs >1.5 were excluded with 95% confidence. The integrity of the analyses was supported by the finding of associations of CAD and MI with well-established risk factors such as age, male gender, smoking, cholesterol, diabetes, and history of hypertension (Table 3).
Pathophysiologic importance of PAI-1.
Impaired fibrinolytic activity is now known to play an integral role in atherothrombotic vascular disease (1–3,23). Impaired plasma fibrinolytic activity has been shown to correlate with atherothrombotic events (e.g., MI, stroke) but less clearly with extent of atherosclerosis, although histologic atherosclerosis is associated with impaired in situ fibrinolytic activity (3,24–29). Polymorphisms of specific fibrinolysis-related genes (e.g., PAI-1) may regulate protein synthesis or transcriptional response to metabolic factors (e.g., insulin, triglycerides) (13,26,30–34), contributing to fibrinolytic activity and risk of thrombosis.
In patients with CAD, especially with a history of MI or other ACS, fibrinolytic activity is impaired at rest and after exercise, and this impairment is associated with increases in circulating PAI-1 (3,5,7,8,27–29). Moreover, PAI-1 activity is raised in diabetics and is particularly high in those with MI (5,6). Also, PAI-1 activity correlates positively with very low density lipoprotein (VLDL) triglycerides and negatively with insulin sensitivity (9,27,28). In addition, PAI-1 has been proposed as a link among obesity, insulin resistance, and cardiovascular disease (10). High levels of PAI-1, as well as fibrinogen, are predictors of MI (4,27–29).
Expression of PAI-1 may be genetically influenced. Indeed, the PAI-1*4G deletion polymorphism, carried by three-quarters of Caucasians, has been associated with increased circulating PAI-1 levels (14,15,30,32). The 4G/5G polymorphism is defined by an insertion or deletion of a guanine in the promoter region of the PAI-1 gene, 675 bp upstream of the transcription start site (12). Thrombosis induced by endothelial injury stimulates PAI-1 gene expression and local PAI-1 synthesis, which may facilitate thrombotic progression (11). The possibility that 4G carriage may accelerate CAD or its progression to MI or other ACS has stimulated this and other published studies.
Synthesis of published and present studies.
Our finding of no significant association of PAI-1*4G with MI or CAD contrasts with four smaller studies (12,14–16) but is in keeping with another larger, prospective study (30). One positive study showed only an indirect (familial) association (16); another used an exploratory approach and an unconventional definition of ACS (15); the association in a third study was limited to patients with MI under the age of 45 (12). Despite an insignificant result, our study’s adjusted OR of 1.28 is similar to the OR of 1.29 reported by Margaglione et al. (16). The 95% CI of Ossei-Gerning’s (14) study (OR = 2.0, lower CI bound, 1.1) and ours (OR = 1.1 to 1.3, upper CI bound, 1.5–2.0) broadly overlap. In Etude Cas Tenoin de infarctus du Myocarde, a relatively large case-control study, the 4G allele showed a dose-related correlation with plasma PAI-1 levels but no association with MI (allele frequencies 0.55 in cases, 0.54 in controls) (30). In a mouse atherogenesis model, no significant differences were found in aortic atherosclerosis between PAI-1 overexpressing and deficient groups (35). Taken together, these observations are consistent with PAI-1*4G exerting at most a modest independent effect on atherothrombotic events occurring late in disease progression (OR  1.5–2.0), with the polymorphism probably requiring interaction with other genetic and environmental factors.
Study strengths and limitations.
Study strengths include its relatively large size and angiographic diagnosis. Significant genetic selection bias appears unlikely in the no-CAD "controls" undergoing angiography, but our findings should apply in any case to patients presenting for evaluation of suspected ischemic heart disease. Our study was "retrospective" with respect to MI events, raising the possibility of changes in prevalence of PAI-1*4G among cases compared with controls due to differential survival rates after MI based on PAI-1*4G carrier status. Against this is the observation that PAI-1*4G allelic frequencies (53% to 54%) are similar in other published studies of different design (12–14,16,26,30). Nevertheless, prospective, matched case-control studies would be of interest. Finally, conditional logistic regression was performed to adjust for differences in baseline factors between cases and controls; adjustment resulted in only minor changes in the OR.
Conclusions.
In a large North American population of European extraction, no significant association with CAD or MI of a common polymorphism (4G/5G) of the promoter region of the PAI-1 gene was found. These study results, angiographically determined, address inconsistencies in earlier association studies (10–16,25–27). The pathogenesis of both CAD and MI is complex and multifactorial, with multiple interacting (and compensating) environmental and genetic determinants, and PAI-1 variants might affect risk only in concert with other specific environmental and genetic factors (e.g., multiple gene variants combined in specific haplotypic patterns). Hence, further research on coagulation-related genetic factors is warranted, including prospective studies of 4G/5G and other PAI-1 polymorphisms in large populations at risk for atherothrombotic events.
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Footnotes
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The study was supported in part by a grant from the Deseret Foundation, Intermountain Health Care, Salt Lake City, Utah.
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Abstract
Methods