CLINICAL STUDIES
Atrial fibrillation is associated with an increased risk for mortality and heart failure progression in patients with asymptomatic and symptomatic left ventricular systolic dysfunction: a retrospective analysis of the SOLVD trials
DanielL Dries, MD, MPH*  ,
DerekV Exner, MD,
BernardJ Gersh, MB, DPhil, ChB,
MichaelJ Domanski, MD*,
MyronA Waclawiw, PhD and
LynneW Stevenson, MD
* Clinical Trials Scientific Research Group, The National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
Georgetown University Hospital, Washington, DC, USA
Office of Biostatistics Research, National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
The Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
Manuscript received February 12, 1998;
revised manuscript received May 11, 1998,
accepted May 20, 1998.
Address for correspondence: Dr. Daniel L. Dries, Clinical Trials Scientific Research Group, Division of Epidemiology and Clinical Applications, National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute, II Rockledge Center, Room 8149, 6701 Rockledge Drive, Bethesda, Maryland 20892
Ddries{at}aol.com
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Abstract
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Objective. This study undertook to determine if the presence of atrial fibrillation in patients with asymptomatic and symptomatic left ventricular dysfunction was associated with increased mortality and, if so, whether the increase could be attributed to progressive heart failure or arrhythmic death.
Background. Atrial fibrillation is a common condition in heart failure with the potential to impact hemodynamics and progression of left ventricular systolic dysfunction as well as the electrophysiologic substrate for arrhythmias. The available data do not conclusively define the effect of atrial fibrillation on prognosis in heart failure.
Methods. A retrospective analysis of the Studies of Left Ventricular Dysfunction Prevention and Treatment Trials was conducted that compared patients with atrial fibrillation to those in sinus rhythm at baseline for the risk of all-cause mortality, progressive pump-failure death and arrhythmic death.
Results. The patients with atrial fibrillation at baseline, compared to those in sinus rhythm, had greater all-cause mortality (34% vs. 23%, p < 0.001), death attributed to pump-failure (16.7% vs. 9.4%, p < 0.001) and were more likely to reach the composite end point of death or hospitalization for heart failure (45% vs. 33%, p < 0.001), but there was no significant difference between the groups in arrhythmic deaths. After multivariate analysis, atrial fibrillation remained significantly associated with all-cause mortality (relative risk [RR] 1.34, 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.12 to 1.62, p = 0.002), progressive pump-failure death (RR 1.42, 95% CI 1.09 to 1.85, p = 0.01), the composite end point of death or hospitalization for heart failure (RR 1.26, 95% CI 1.03 to 1.42, p = 0.02), but not arrhythmic death (RR 1.13; 95% CI 0.75 to 1.71; p = 0.55).
Conclusions. The presence of atrial fibrillation in patients with asymptomatic and symptomatic left ventricular systolic dysfunction is associated with an increased risk for all-cause mortality, largely explained by an increased risk for pump-failure death. These data suggest that atrial fibrillation is associated with progression of left ventricular systolic dysfunction.
Atrial fibrillation is common in patients with heart failure and is estimated to occur in 15% to 30% of patients during the course of their disease (1–5). This rhythm is associated with a variety of potentially deleterious hemodynamic consequences that might exert a negative influence on prognosis and accelerate progression of left ventricular systolic dysfunction in patients with heart failure. Recent data also suggest that the irregular sequence of ventricular cycle lengths (R-R intervals) resulting from atrial fibrillation is associated with adverse hemodynamic consequences independent of heart rate (6).
Despite the potentially adverse hemodynamic and electrophysiologic consequences of this common dysrhythmia, the prognostic implications of atrial fibrillation in heart failure remain unclear. (1,2,7–11). Therefore, to further study the influence of atrial fibrillation on survival and progression of disease in mild to moderate heart failure, we conducted a retrospective analysis of the Studies of Left Ventricular Dysfunction (SOLVD) Prevention and Treatment Trials to evaluate the association of atrial fibrillation with all-cause mortality, death due to progressive pump failure and arrhythmic death.
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Methods
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SOLVD prevention and treatment trial design.
The SOLVD Prevention and Treatment Trials assessed the effect of angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibition on survival in patients with heart failure (12–14). A total of 4,228 patients participated in the Prevention Trial, which consisted mostly of asymptomatic, New York Heart Association (NYHA) class I patients, but approximately one-third of patients in the Prevention Trial were classified with NYHA class II symptoms. The Treatment Trial randomized a total of 2,569 patients, all of whom had symptomatic heart failure. In both trials participants were required to have a recently documented ejection fraction  35%. This was assessed by radionuclide angiography in 68%, two-dimensional echocardiography in 21% and contrast angiography in 11% of the participants. There was no difference in the proportion of patients with atrial fibrillation compared to sinus rhythm whose qualifying ejection fraction was assessed by radionuclide angiography (64% vs. 63%, p = 0.82). All participants were randomized to treatment with enalapril, at doses of 2.5 to 20 mg/day, or placebo in a double-blind manner. The primary end point in both trials was total mortality. Exclusion criteria included: the presence of active angina pectoris requiring surgical intervention, unstable angina, myocardial infarction within 1 month of study start, renal failure (creatinine >2.0 mg%) or severe pulmonary disease. The average follow-up time, analyzing both trials together, was 33.4 ± 14.3 months.
Data collection and definitions.
Data on baseline patient demographics, past medical conditions and current medication profiles were obtained for all participants at the time of enrollment into either of the SOLVD Trials. A baseline electrocardiogram (ECG) was obtained on each participant at the time of randomization. For the present analysis, we identified participants with atrial fibrillation or sinus rhythm based upon the rhythm present on the prerandomization ECG. Patients identified with a history of atrial fibrillation but in sinus rhythm on the baseline ECG were considered to have sinus rhythm for the purposes of the present analysis. Considering both the SOLVD Prevention and Treatment Trials, a total of 280 patients (4.1%) were missing data regarding the rhythm present on the baseline ECG. These participants are excluded from the present analysis.
Definition of end points.
Causes of death were classified by blinded review of the circumstances surrounding each death by the principal investigator at each site. This analysis defines deaths due to progressive pump failure as those deaths classified by the SOLVD investigators as due to pump failure as well as those classified as "arrhythmic with some antecedent worsening heart failure." We define arrhythmic deaths to include those deaths classified by the SOLVD investigators as "probable arrhythmia with no antecedent worsening of heart failure."
Statistical methods.
Age and ejection fraction were analyzed as continuous variables. The following variables were analyzed as dichotomous variables, indicating the presence or absence of the risk factor: diabetes, prior hypertension, prior myocardial infarction, history of angina, prior stroke and atrial fibrillation on the prerandomization ECG. Data regarding the use of medications were based upon each participant’s active medication profile at the time of randomization into either of the SOLVD Trials. A participant was considered to be using a medication if he or she used that medication at the time of randomization.
Use of the following medications was analyzed as binary data: anticoagulants, antiplatelet agents, concomitant use of anticoagulant and antiplatelet agents, randomization to enalapril, diuretics, antiarrhythmic drugs and digoxin. The severity of heart failure symptoms as measured by the NYHA functional class was analyzed as a dichotomous variable, comparing those with NYHA class III or IV symptoms to those with NYHA class I or II symptoms. The etiology of heart failure was defined as a dichotomous variable comparing patients with an ischemic etiology to those classified as unknown or nonischemic. As there was no statistical evidence of an interaction between atrial fibrillation and trial involvement (Prevention or Treatment) on the risk for all-cause mortality, the data from the SOLVD Prevention and Treatment Trials were analyzed together, while adjusting for measures of disease severity in the multivariate analyses.
Categorical data were compared using the chi-squared statistic and continuous data were compared using the Student’s t test assuming unequal variances where appropriate. A p value 0.05 was considered statistically significant. Kaplan–Meier survival curves of patients with atrial fibrillation were compared to those of patients in sinus rhythm using the log-rank statistic.
Univariate analyses of the relationships of each covariate with the risk of death, pump-failure death, arrhythmic death and the composite end point of death of hospitalization for heart failure were investigated using the Cox-proportional hazards model. A two-sided, 95% confidence interval (CI) was constructed around each point estimate of relative risk (RR) and a p value 0.05 was considered statistically significant. Multivariate relationships were likewise analyzed using the Cox-proportional hazards model.
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Results
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Baseline characteristics.
Table 1 displays the baseline characteristics of patients in sinus rhythm, as compared to those with atrial fibrillation, on the prerandomization ECG. Compared to those in sinus rhythm, patients with atrial fibrillation were older (63 vs. 60 yr; p < 0.001), more likely to have NYHA class III or IV functional capacity (22% vs. 12%, p < 0.001) and had a lower mean ejection fraction (26 ± 7 vs. 27 ± 6, p = 0.005). Patients with atrial fibrillation were also more likely to have a history of a stroke than those in sinus rhythm (11% vs. 6%, p < 0.001). Patients with atrial fibrillation were less likely to have a history of myocardial infarction (38% vs. 77%, p < 0.001) and were less likely to be classified with an ischemic etiology of heart failure (44% vs. 81%, p < 0.001). The prevalence of prior hypertension (39% vs. 40%) and diabetes (18% vs. 20%) was not statistically different in the two groups. Patients with atrial fibrillation more frequently used anticoagulants (35% vs. 9%), digoxin (81% vs. 30%), diuretics (59% vs. 39%) and antiarrhythmic drugs (23% vs. 17%) (all p 0.001) compared to those in sinus rhythm. Patients with atrial fibrillation were more likely to be randomized to enalapril than those in sinus rhythm at baseline (55% vs. 50%, p = 0.02). Patients with atrial fibrillation were less likely than patients in sinus rhythm to use beta-blockers (9% vs. 18%, p < 0.001) and antiplatelet agents (20% vs. 46%, p < 0.001). The average resting heart rate was slightly higher in patients with atrial fibrillation (79 vs. 77 beats/min; p = 0.001) and a greater proportion of patients with atrial fibrillation were in the SOLVD Treatment Trial compared to those in sinus rhythm at baseline (60% vs. 37%, p < 0.001).
Survival and causes of death.
Figure 1 displays the Kaplan–Meier survival curves for patients who were in atrial fibrillation and those who were in sinus rhythm at the time of randomization into the SOLVD trials. The overall mortality of patients with atrial fibrillation was greater than those in sinus rhythm (log-rank p < 0.001). Figure 2 displays the event-free survival from deaths classified as due to progressive pump failure. Patients with atrial fibrillation were more likely to die from progressive pump failure than those in sinus rhythm (log-rank p < 0.001). Figure 3 displays event-free survival from the composite end point of death or hospitalization for heart failure, demonstrating that the patients with atrial fibrillation were more likely than those in sinus rhythm to experience this composite end point (log-rank p < 0.001). There was no difference in survival between patients with atrial fibrillation and sinus rhythm from deaths classified as arrhythmic (p = 0.36). In terms of absolute risk, the unadjusted incidence per 100 participant-years of follow-up was greater in the patients with atrial fibrillation compared to those in sinus rhythm at baseline for: all-cause mortality (13.1 vs. 8.2, p < 0.001), pump-failure death (6.4 vs. 3.4, p < 0.001) and the composite end point of death or hospitalization for heart failure (21 vs. 13.1, p < 0.001), but not arrhythmic death (2.5 vs. 2.2, p = 0.36).
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Figure 1 Kaplan–Meier event-free survival curves for the end point of all-cause mortality comparing those patients with atrial fibrillation (n = 419; solid line) and those patients in sinus rhythm (n = 6,098; broken line) at baseline. Patients with atrial fibrillation had a decreased cumulative survival compared to those with sinus rhythm (log-rank p < 0.001). The number of patients in each group surviving at each 365-day interval is displayed.
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Figure 2 Kaplan–Meier event-free survival curves for the end point of deaths due to progressive pump failure. Patients with atrial fibrillation (n = 419; solid line) were more likely than those in sinus rhythm (n = 6,098; broken line) to die from progressive pump failure (log-rank p < 0.001). The number of patients in each group surviving at each 365-day interval is displayed.
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Figure 3 Kaplan–Meier event-free survival curves for the composite end point of death or hospitalization for heart failure. Patients with atrial fibrillation (n = 419; solid line) were more likely than those in sinus rhythm (n = 6,098; broken line) to die or be hospitalized for heart failure (log-rank p < 0.001). The number of patients in each group surviving at each 365-day interval is displayed.
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Table 2 displays the causes of death in patients with atrial fibrillation and those in sinus rhythm at the time of randomization into either the SOLVD Prevention or Treatment Trial. In both trials, patients with atrial fibrillation had a greater all-cause mortality and mortality from progressive heart failure than those in sinus rhythm. There were no significant differences in either trial between the participants in atrial fibrillation compared to those in sinus rhythm in the deaths classified as either arrhythmic or due to myocardial infarction. In the Prevention Trial, patients with atrial fibrillation had a slight excess of deaths classified as due to fatal stroke or pulmonary embolus (2.4% vs. 0.8%, log-rank p = 0.02) as well as an excess of noncardiovascular deaths (4.8% vs. 2.5%, log-rank p = 0.03).
Univariate analysis.
Upon univariate analysis, atrial fibrillation was significantly associated with the risk of all-cause mortality (relative risk [RR] 1.66, 95% CI 1.40 to 1.97, p < 0.001), death due to progressive pump failure (RR 1.95, 95% CI 1.53 to 2.51, p < 0.001) as well as the combined end point of death or hospitalization for heart failure (RR 1.53, 95% CI 1.32 to 1.78, p < 0.001). Atrial fibrillation was not associated with the risk for an arrhythmic death on univariate analysis (RR 1.19, 95% CI 0.81 to 1.75, p = 0.37).
Left ventricular ejection fraction (EF) was strongly associated with all-cause mortality (RR per 10% decrease in EF 1.75, 95% CI 1.68 to 1.81, p < 0.001). Aspects of the medical history that were significantly associated with an increased risk of mortality on univariate analysis included: age, use of antiarrhythmics, diabetes, prior hypertension, prior stroke and NYHA functional class III or IV symptoms. Drug therapy associated with a reduction in the risk for death included: use of antiplatelet agents, anticoagulants, beta-blockers and the study drug enalapril. Medications associated with an increased risk of mortality on univariate analysis included: diuretics, digoxin and antiarrhythmic drugs. Gender was not associated with all-cause mortality on univariate analysis.
Multivariate analysis.
Multivariate analyses of the association of atrial fibrillation with the risk of all-cause mortality and death due to progressive pump failure are presented in Tables 3 and 4,respectively. After adjusting for differences in the severity of illness, medication use and other potentially confounding influences, the presence of atrial fibrillation remained independently associated with all-cause mortality (RR 1.34, 95% CI 1.12 to 1.62, p = 0.002), pump-failure death (RR 1.42, 95% CI 1.09 to 1.85, p = 0.01), but not sudden death (RR 1.13, 95% CI 0.75 to 1.71, p = 0.55).
Variables independently associated with the risk of all-cause mortality in the multivariate model included: age (a 10% increased risk per 5-yr increase in age, p < 0.001), a decline in EF (45% increased risk per 10% decrease in EF, p < 0.001), NYHA class III or IV symptoms (74% increased risk for class III/IV relative to class I/II, p < 0.001), diabetes (34% increased risk, p < 0.001), use of any antiarrhythmic drug (28% increased risk, p = 0.004) and diuretic use (67% increased risk, p < 0.001). The variables associated with a reduced risk of death included: use of antiplatelet agents (21% reduction in risk, p < 0.001), anticoagulants (25% reduction in risk, p < 0.001), randomization to enalapril (14% reduction in risk, p = 0.003) and beta-blockers (21% reduction in risk, p = 0.005).
Although not associated with all-cause mortality on univariate analysis, we did conduct a multivariate analysis that included gender in the model in addition to all the other covariates used in the main analysis. On multivariate analysis, gender was also not independently associated with all-cause mortality, and atrial fibrillation remained independently associated with mortality (RR 1.32, 95% CI 1.10 to 1.59, p = 0.003).
Analysis limited to patients with atrial fibrillation not receiving antiarrhythmic drugs.
Although we adjusted for the use of any antiarrhythmic drug in the multivariate model, we could not adjust by specific antiarrhythmic drug class since these data were unavailable. We conducted, therefore, a subanalysis limited to the 321 (77%) participants with atrial fibrillation who were not receiving any type of antiarrhythmic drug at the time of randomization into either of the two SOLVD Trials. The presence of atrial fibrillation in this cohort was also strongly associated with an increased risk for all-cause mortality in univariate analysis (RR 1.63, 95% CI 1.34 to 1.98, p < 0.001). In multivariate analysis, as in the main analysis, atrial fibrillation remained associated with the risk for all-cause mortality (RR 1.44, 95% CI 1.17 to 1.78, p < 0.001) as well as pump-failure death (RR 1.58, 95% CI 1.17 to 1.78, p = 0.01), but not sudden death (RR 1.15, p = 0.57). Likewise, we conducted an analysis of the patients in atrial fibrillation who were not using any antiarrhythmic drug and all of whom were randomized to receive treatment with enalapril (n = 175). In this subgroup, patients with atrial fibrillation demonstrated an increased risk for all-cause mortality (RR 1.45, 95 CI 1.08 to 1.95, p = 0.01) compared to those in sinus rhythm despite multivariate adjustment for the same covariates as in the primary analysis.
Hospitalizations for heart failure.
To further address the hypothesis that atrial fibrillation may accelerate the progression of heart failure, we examined the association of atrial fibrillation with the composite end point of death or hospitalization for worsening heart failure. The rate of death or hospitalization for heart failure in patients with atrial fibrillation was 21.0 compared to 13.1 events per 100 participant-years of follow-up for patients in sinus rhythm (p < 0.001). Atrial fibrillation was associated with the composite end point of death or hospitalization for heart failure in univariate analysis (RR 1.44, 95% CI 1.24 to 1.67, p < 0.001) as well as multivariate analysis (RR 1.21, 95% CI 1.03 to 1.42, p = 0.02), despite adjusting for the same covariates as the primary analysis.
Use of calcium-channel blockers.
Data on the use of calcium-channel blockers were available for 5,116 patients, of whom 4,783 were in sinus rhythm and 333 in atrial fibrillation at the time of randomization. Within these patients, the participants with atrial fibrillation were less likely than those in sinus rhythm to use a calcium-channel blocker (29% vs. 44%, p < 0.001). However, calcium-channel blocker use was not independently associated with the risk for mortality. The inclusion of calcium-channel blocker use in the multivariate model had no effect on the association of atrial fibrillation with mortality (RR 1.41, 95% CI 1.16 to 1.71, p = 0.001).
Influence of heart rate.
The mean resting heart rate at baseline was slightly greater in the participants with atrial fibrillation compared to those in sinus rhythm (79 ± 15 vs. 77 ± 13 beats/min; p = 0.002). When we adjusted for the baseline resting heart rate for each participant in the multivariate model, atrial fibrillation remained independently associated with all-cause mortality (RR 1.34, 95% CI 1.12 to 1.62, p = 0.002), pump-failure death (RR 1.41, 95% CI 1.08 to 1.85, p = 0.01) and the combined end point of death or hospitalization for heart failure (RR 1.21, 95% CI 1.03 to 1.42, p = 0.02). The median heart rate for the patients with atrial fibrillation was 79 beats/min; 75% of the patients with atrial fibrillation had a baseline resting heart rate 88 beats/min. When we analyzed the influence of atrial fibrillation on prognosis in the patients (n = 216) with atrial fibrillation whose baseline heart rate was below the median value, atrial fibrillation was associated with an increased risk for all-cause mortality (RR 1.60, 95% CI 1.23 to 2.07, p < 0.001), pump-failure death (RR 1.92, 95% CI 1.30 to 2.84, p = 0.001) and the composite end point of death or hospitalization for heart failure (RR 1.42, 95% CI 1.31 to 1.79, p = 0.003).
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Discussion
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The present analysis, although retrospective, has the strength of including a large number of patients with atrial fibrillation (n = 419) and mild to moderate heart failure with substantial follow-up time (33.4 ± 14.3 months). The results of this study suggest that the presence of atrial fibrillation in patients with asymptomatic and symptomatic left ventricular systolic dysfunction is independently associated with an increased risk for all-cause mortality. This appears to be largely explained by an increased risk for death due to progressive heart failure. The association of atrial fibrillation with death due to progressive heart failure, as well as the composite end point of death or hospitalization for worsening heart failure, supports our hypothesis that atrial fibrillation may be associated with progression of left ventricular systolic dysfunction. In contrast to previous data (2), however, atrial fibrillation was not associated with an increased risk for an arrhythmic death.
Comparison to previous studies.
Middlekauff et al. (2) retrospectively studied 390 consecutive patients that were referred for an evaluation for cardiac transplantation, 75 of whom had either chronic or paroxysmal atrial fibrillation. In contrast to the present study, atrial fibrillation was independently associated with an increase in mortality due to an increased risk of sudden, unexpected death. Stevenson et al. (11) subsequently reported that in patients with severe heart failure, the prognosis for those with atrial fibrillation appears to be improving. The improved mortality in these patients appeared to parallel an increased use of both amiodarone and angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors and a decreased use of Vaughan–Williams class I antiarrhythmic drugs in the patients with severe heart failure and atrial fibrillation. The authors speculated that the association of atrial fibrillation with an increased risk for sudden death, as demonstrated in previous studies (2), may have reflected the confounding influence from class I antiarrhythmic agents which themselves may have increased the mortality in these patients by the mechanism of proarrhythmia. The population of patients in these studies included a significantly greater proportion with severe (NYHA class IV) heart failure compared to the SOLVD Trials. The increased mortality risk associated with atrial fibrillation in the analysis from Middlekauff et al. (2) was limited to sudden death. However, the present analysis of the SOLVD Trials demonstrates that atrial fibrillation is associated with an increased mortality risk largely explained by an increased risk for death from pump failure. Our data also differ in that they demonstrate no association with the risk of arrhythmic death. Moreover, the adverse prognostic impact of atrial fibrillation in the SOLVD Trials was apparent even in the patients with atrial fibrillation reporting no use of antiarrhythmic drugs at baseline and subsequently randomized to receive treatment with enalapril.
Carson et al. (1) studied the impact of atrial fibrillation in heart failure patients entered into the Holter substudy of the Vasodilator-Heart Failure (V-HeFT) I and II Trials: a total of 99 patients with atrial fibrillation in V-HeFT I and 107 patients with atrial fibrillation in V-HeFT II. These trials compared hydralazine-isosorbide dinitrate combination therapy to placebo (Ve-Heft I) and hydralazine-isosorbide dinitrate combination therapy with enalapril (Ve-Heft II) in patients with mild to moderate heart failure. The survival of patients with atrial fibrillation, whether chronic or paroxysmal, was not statistically different from that in patients in sinus rhythm in either Ve-HeFT study. Moreover, atrial fibrillation, whether chronic or paroxysmal, was not associated with all-cause mortality or sudden death on either univariate or multivariate analysis.
The V-HeFT studies, in contrast to the present analysis, identified patients with atrial fibrillation using periodic Holter monitoring. They were able, therefore, to categorize atrial fibrillation as either chronic or paroxysmal. The patients with atrial fibrillation in the SOLVD studies had evidence of more severe underlying disease compared to those in sinus rhythm. Baseline differences in the severity of heart failure between those participants with atrial fibrillation compared to those with sinus rhythm were less apparent in the Ve-HeFT studies. Nonetheless, despite adjusting for the differences in disease severity, atrial fibrillation remained independently associated with all-cause mortality, death from progressive pump failure and the combined end point of death or hospitalization for heart failure in the present analysis. We cannot further account for the different conclusions between the present study and that of the V-HeFT investigators.
Possible mechanisms whereby atrial fibrillation may adversely influence heart failure.
The chronically fast heart rate that may result from atrial fibrillation may result in left ventricular dysfunction and improve with conversion back to sinus rhythm (15–17). It is also likely that in patients with left ventricular dysfunction resulting from other primary etiologies, chronically rapid heart rates resulting from atrial fibrillation might exacerbate the underlying degree of left ventricular dysfunction. The increased proportion of atrial fibrillation patients with nonischemic left ventricular dysfunction might suggest that some of the SOLVD patients with atrial fibrillation had tachycardia-induced cardiomyopathy (17). However, it is unlikely that the adverse prognostic impact of atrial fibrillation was limited to these patients. For example, the average resting heart rate for the patients with atrial fibrillation, although greater than those in sinus, was only 79 beats/min, and 75% of the patients with atrial fibrillation had a resting heart rate 88 beats/min. When we adjusted for the resting heart rate in the multivariate model, there was no change in the magnitude of the independent association of atrial fibrillation with the risk of mortality, death due to pump failure, or the composite end point of death or hospitalization for heart failure. Moreover, the group of patients with atrial fibrillation whose resting heart rate was below the median value for the atrial fibrillation group (78 beats/min) remained at significantly increased risk for these endpoints.
Recent data suggest that the variation in ventricular cycle lengths (R-R intervals) resulting from atrial fibrillation may adversely affect ventricular function and the hemodynamic status independently from the effect of atrial fibrillation upon the ventricular rate. In a canine model, Naito et al. (18) demonstrated that the persistent irregularity in ventricular cycle lengths, due to atrial fibrillation, leads to a significant decline in cardiac output independent of heart rate. Clark et al. (6) recently demonstrated similar results in humans.
Other mechanisms of hemodynamic deterioration include the loss of atrial-ventricular synchrony which reduces end-diastolic pressure and volume in both ventricles and may result in a reduction in stroke volume, an increase in the mean diastolic pressure in the atria, ventricular-valvular regurgitation and a reduced time interval for passive diastolic filling (18–21).
Atrial fibrillation may have an adverse effect on patients with heart failure due to the adverse effects of drugs commonly used in these patients. For example, calcium-channel blockers are used on occasion to assist in rate control, despite the negative inotropic effects, in patients with atrial fibrillation and heart failure. This might exacerbate symptoms of heart failure, leading to a hospitalization for worsening heart failure. Some case-control studies have suggested that calcium-channel blockers may be associated with an increase in mortality in patients with coronary disease and left ventricular dysfunction (22,23). Antiarrhythmic drugs, in particular the class I antiarrhythmic agents, may result in fatal proarrhythmia in this population (11). In the present analysis, however, even after adjusting for the differences in medication use between those participants with atrial fibrillation and those in sinus rhythm, atrial fibrillation remained independently associated with the risk for all-cause mortality, pump-failure death and the combined end point of death or hospitalization for heart failure.
Patients with atrial fibrillation are at an increased risk for thromboembolic events compared to patients in sinus rhythm, in which the incidence of thromboembolic events is low despite severe left ventricular dysfunction (24). In the present study, however, the differences in deaths from fatal strokes or pulmonary emboli accounted for a small proportion of the excess mortality in patients with atrial fibrillation compared to those in sinus rhythm.
The association of atrial fibrillation with all-cause mortality and progressive pump failure may reflect the fact that the presence of atrial fibrillation is a marker for more severe underlying disease. Measures of EF and functional capacity as measured by the NYHA classification scheme, although well-documented prognostic markers in heart failure, are relatively crude measures of the underlying disease process. It is possible that the presence of atrial fibrillation merely identifies patients with other unmeasured differences in disease severity that themselves influence survival in this population.
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Limitations
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This is a retrospective analysis of the SOLVD Trials and is therefore subject to the limitations of all retrospective analyses. One obvious concern is that the association of atrial fibrillation with all-cause mortality in the present analysis is explained by the fact that the patients with atrial fibrillation had more severe underlying disease than those in sinus rhythm. We made every effort, however, to adjust for these differences in the multivariate model. Nonetheless, despite adjusting for these differences, atrial fibrillation remained independently associated with all-cause mortality, death due to progressive pump failure and the composite end point of death or hospitalization for heart failure. We acknowledge, however, the possibility for residual confounding from both measured and unmeasured variables.
There was a particular concern about the reported use of antiarrhythmic therapy since we lacked information about the specific drugs used. We conducted, therefore, a subanalysis which was limited to those patients with atrial fibrillation reporting no use of any antiarrhythmic drugs. When limited to this cohort, the association between atrial fibrillation and the risk for all-cause mortality and death due to progressive pump failure persisted.
It is important to acknowledge that the classification of deaths according to etiology is imprecise in these populations (25). Those deaths classified by the SOLVD investigators as "arrhythmic with no antecedent heart failure" may have resulted from fatal myocardial infarctions, ventricular tachyarrhythmias, bradyarrhythmias, fatal pulmonary emboli or fatal strokes. To increase the specificity of our definition of an arrhythmic death, only those deaths that were classified as "sudden with no antecedent evidence of worsening heart failure" by the SOLVD investigators were included. It is likely that misclassification of the causes of death existed.
The qualifying EFs in the majority of patients were obtained using radionuclide angiography. This technique can underestimate the EF in patients with atrial fibrillation due to gating difficulties arising from the irregular sequences of ventricular activation (26). Although we adjusted for resting heart rate, we did not have data on the ventricular response to exercise. It is possible that the patients with atrial fibrillation, although demonstrating an acceptable average heart rate at rest, may have had poor rate control with activity.
A final concern is that the data for the present analysis were obtained in each participant at the time of randomization. It is likely that some of the patients in sinus rhythm later developed atrial fibrillation. However, assuming that this were the case and that there was an association of atrial fibrillation with mortality, it is expected that the bias would be toward finding no association of atrial fibrillation with the outcomes of interest. Likewise, patients in atrial fibrillation at baseline may have later converted to sinus rhythm. If we assume that paroxysmal atrial fibrillation is less likely to have adverse effects in heart failure than chronic atrial fibrillation, we would once again expect that this would make it more difficult to demonstrate an association of atrial fibrillation with the outcomes of interest. Medication use was also assessed at baseline and likely changed during follow-up. However, it seems unlikely that changes in medication during the course of the SOLVD Trials introduced a systematic bias into the present analysis.
Clinical implications.
The optimal treatment strategy for atrial fibrillation, in particular those with significant left ventricular systolic dysfunction, is yet to be elucidated. Although rate control appears to be beneficial (15–17), it can be difficult in patients with heart failure to achieve adequate rate control during activity. The choice of which agents to use in addition to digoxin for improving rate control is complicated in this population. The use of beta-blockers, specifically the third-generation compounds, appears to be promising in patients with mild to moderate heart failure (27), but a benefit for patients in atrial fibrillation and heart failure has not been specifically demonstrated. Regarding the use of antiarrhythmic drug therapy to maintain or restore sinus rhythm, amiodarone appears to be safe in this population (28). In addition to helping restore or maintain sinus rhythm, amiodarone can function to control the ventricular response to atrial fibrillation. Other antiarrhythmic drugs must be used cautiously, however, because of concerns for an increase in mortality due to fatal proarrhythmia (11). Other treatment modalities exist such as ablation of the atrial-ventricular node and insertion of a rate-responsive ventricular pacemaker. This has been demonstrated to improve ventricular function in patients with atrial fibrillation and rapid ventricular heart rates (29). Moreover, as previously mentioned, the irregularity in the ventricular cycle-length (R-R intervals) resulting from atrial fibrillation can adversely influence hemodynamic parameters independent of the heart rate (18). This suggests that atrioventricular nodal ablation and ventricular pacing might confer long-term hemodynamic benefits by a mechanism that is independent of the improvement attributed to improved rate control in patients with heart failure and atrial fibrillation.
The ongoing National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute-sponsored AFFIRM Trial (Atrial Fibrillation Follow-up Investigation of Rhythm Management) may help to clarify some of these concerns (30). This trial is comparing two strategies used to treat patients with atrial fibrillation: rate-control and anticoagulation vs. an aggressive attempt to restore sinus rhythm. Importantly, this trial is including patients with left ventricular dysfunction and heart failure and hopefully will provide important data to help identify an optimal treatment strategy in these patients.
Conclusions.
In patients with asymptomatic and symptomatic left ventricular systolic dysfunction, atrial fibrillation is independently associated with an increased risk for death, largely explained by an increased risk for progressive pump-failure death. The presence of atrial fibrillation in patients with mild to moderate heart failure, therefore, appears to identify patients that deserve particular attention and careful management. Even if the major adverse prognostic impact of atrial fibrillation is related to the severity of the underlying conditions rather than the presence of atrial fibrillation itself, these data suggest that the severity exceeds that evident from other clinical information. These patients then appear to warrant particular vigilance with regard to the adequacy of their medical regimen and the frequency of follow-up.
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References
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L. G. Olsson, K. Swedberg, A. Ducharme, C. B. Granger, E. L. Michelson, J. J.V. McMurray, M. Puu, S. Yusuf, M. A. Pfeffer, and on behalf of the CHARM Investigators
Atrial Fibrillation and Risk of Clinical Events in Chronic Heart Failure With and Without Left Ventricular Systolic Dysfunction: Results From the Candesartan in Heart failure-Assessment of Reduction in Mortality and morbidity (CHARM) Program
J. Am. Coll. Cardiol.,
May 16, 2006;
47(10):
1997 - 2004.
[Abstract]
[Full Text]
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M. E.W. Hemels, Y. L. Gu, A. E. Tuinenburg, P. W. Boonstra, A. C.P. Wiesfeld, M. P. van den Berg, D. J. Van Veldhuisen, and I. C. Van Gelder
Favorable long-term outcome of maze surgery in patients with lone atrial fibrillation.
Ann. Thorac. Surg.,
May 1, 2006;
81(5):
1773 - 1779.
[Abstract]
[Full Text]
[PDF]
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A. Hirashiki, H. Izawa, F. Somura, K. Obata, T. Kato, T. Nishizawa, A. Yamada, H. Asano, S. Ohshima, A. Noda, et al.
Prognostic Value of Pacing-Induced Mechanical Alternans in Patients With Mild-to-Moderate Idiopathic Dilated Cardiomyopathy in Sinus Rhythm
J. Am. Coll. Cardiol.,
April 4, 2006;
47(7):
1382 - 1389.
[Abstract]
[Full Text]
[PDF]
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A. A. Elesber, A. G. Rosales, R. M. Herges, W.-K. Shen, B. S. Moon, J. F. Malouf, N. M. Ammash, V. Somers, D. O. Hodge, B. J. Gersh, et al.
Relapse and mortality following cardioversion of new-onset vs. recurrent atrial fibrillation and atrial flutter in the elderly
Eur. Heart J.,
April 1, 2006;
27(7):
854 - 860.
[Abstract]
[Full Text]
[PDF]
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P Kies, C Leclercq, G B Bleeker, C Crocq, S G Molhoek, C Poulain, L van Erven, M Bootsma, K Zeppenfeld, E E van der Wall, et al.
Cardiac resynchronisation therapy in chronic atrial fibrillation: impact on left atrial size and reversal to sinus rhythm
Heart,
April 1, 2006;
92(4):
490 - 494.
[Abstract]
[Full Text]
[PDF]
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A. Vazir, M. Dayer, P. C. Hastings, H. F. McIntyre, M. Y. Henein, P. A. Poole-Wilson, M. R. Cowie, M. J. Morrell, and A. K. Simonds
Can heart rate variation rule out sleep-disordered breathing in heart failure?
Eur. Respir. J.,
March 1, 2006;
27(3):
571 - 577.
[Abstract]
[Full Text]
[PDF]
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O. D. Pedersen, S. Z. Abildstrom, M. M. Ottesen, C. Rask-Madsen, H. Bagger, L. Kober, C. Torp-Pedersen, and on behalf of the TRACE study investigators
Increased risk of sudden and non-sudden cardiovascular death in patients with atrial fibrillation/flutter following acute myocardial infarction
Eur. Heart J.,
February 1, 2006;
27(3):
290 - 295.
[Abstract]
[Full Text]
[PDF]
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M. Rienstra, I. C. Van Gelder, V. E. Hagens, N. J.G.M. Veeger, D. J. Van Veldhuisen, H. J.G.M. Crijns, and for the RACE Investigators
Mending the rhythm does not improve prognosis in patients with persistent atrial fibrillation: a subanalysis of the RACE study
Eur. Heart J.,
February 1, 2006;
27(3):
357 - 364.
[Abstract]
[Full Text]
[PDF]
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P. A. Gould, M. Yii, M. D. Esler, J. M. Power, and D. M. Kaye
Atrial fibrillation impairs cardiac sympathetic response to baroreceptor unloading in congestive heart failure
Eur. Heart J.,
December 1, 2005;
26(23):
2562 - 2567.
[Abstract]
[Full Text]
[PDF]
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J. S. Floras
Atrial fibrillation and cardiac sympathetic reflexes in heart failure
Eur. Heart J.,
December 1, 2005;
26(23):
2490 - 2492.
[Full Text]
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G. V. Naccarelli
Antiadrenergic Therapy in the Control of Atrial Fibrillation
Journal of Cardiovascular Pharmacology and Therapeutics,
October 1, 2005;
10(4_suppl):
S33 - S43.
[Abstract]
[PDF]
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R. K. Wolf, E. W. Schneeberger, R. Osterday, D. Miller, W. Merrill, J. B. Flege Jr, and A. M. Gillinov
Video-assisted bilateral pulmonary vein isolation and left atrial appendage exclusion for atrial fibrillation
J. Thorac. Cardiovasc. Surg.,
September 1, 2005;
130(3):
797 - 802.
[Abstract]
[Full Text]
[PDF]
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A. Verma, A. Natale, B. J. Padanilam, E. N. Prystowsky, A. Verma, A. Natale, B. J. Padanilam, and E. N. Prystowsky
Why Atrial Fibrillation Ablation Should Be Considered First-Line Therapy for Some Patients
Circulation,
August 23, 2005;
112(8):
1214 - 1222.
[Full Text]
[PDF]
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A. C.P. Wiesfeld, M. E.W. Hemels, J. P. Van Tintelen, M. P. Van den Berg, D. J. Van Veldhuisen, and I. C. Van Gelder
Genetic aspects of atrial fibrillation
Cardiovasc Res,
August 15, 2005;
67(3):
414 - 418.
[Abstract]
[Full Text]
[PDF]
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S. E. Shoaf, M. V. Elizari, Z. Wang, K. Sekar, L. R. Grinfeld, N. A. Barbagelata, J. Lerman, S. L. Bramer, J. Tronge, and C. Orlandi
Tolvaptan Administration Does Not Affect Steady State Amiodarone Concentrations in Patients With Cardiac Arrhythmias
Journal of Cardiovascular Pharmacology and Therapeutics,
July 1, 2005;
10(3):
165 - 171.
[Abstract]
[PDF]
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C Berry, K Hogg, J Norrie, K Stevenson, M Brett, and J McMurray
Heart failure with preserved left ventricular systolic function: a hospital cohort study
Heart,
July 1, 2005;
91(7):
907 - 913.
[Abstract]
[Full Text]
[PDF]
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K. Swedberg, L. G. Olsson, A. Charlesworth, J. Cleland, P. Hanrath, M. Komajda, M. Metra, C. Torp-Pedersen, and P. Poole-Wilson
Prognostic relevance of atrial fibrillation in patients with chronic heart failure on long-term treatment with beta-blockers: results from COMET
Eur. Heart J.,
July 1, 2005;
26(13):
1303 - 1308.
[Abstract]
[Full Text]
[PDF]
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P. Zimetbaum
An Argument for Maintenance of Sinus Rhythm in Patients With Atrial Fibrillation
Circulation,
June 14, 2005;
111(23):
3150 - 3156.
[Full Text]
[PDF]
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K. Wachtell, B. Hornestam, M. Lehto, D. J. Slotwiner, E. Gerdts, M. H. Olsen, P. Aurup, B. Dahlof, H. Ibsen, S. Julius, et al.
Cardiovascular morbidity and mortality in hypertensive patients with a history of atrial fibrillation: The Losartan Intervention For End point reduction in hypertension (LIFE) study
J. Am. Coll. Cardiol.,
March 1, 2005;
45(5):
705 - 711.
[Abstract]
[Full Text]
[PDF]
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C. L. O'Brien and B. F. Gage
Costs and Effectiveness of Ximelagatran for Stroke Prophylaxis in Chronic Atrial Fibrillation
JAMA,
February 9, 2005;
293(6):
699 - 706.
[Abstract]
[Full Text]
[PDF]
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F. Gustafsson, C. B. Kragelund, C. Torp-Pedersen, M. Seibaek, H. Burchardt, D. Akkan, J. J. Thune, L. Kober, and for the DIAMOND study group
Effect of obesity and being overweight on long-term mortality in congestive heart failure: influence of left ventricular systolic function
Eur. Heart J.,
January 1, 2005;
26(1):
58 - 64.
[Abstract]
[Full Text]
[PDF]
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H. Bihan, C. Espinosa, H. Valdes-Socin, S. Salenave, J. Young, S. Levasseur, P. Assayag, A. Beckers, and P. Chanson
Long-Term Outcome of Patients with Acromegaly and Congestive Heart Failure
J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.,
November 1, 2004;
89(11):
5308 - 5313.
[Abstract]
[Full Text]
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A. Abidov, R. Hachamovitch, A. Rozanski, S. W. Hayes, M. M. Santos, M. G. Sciammarella, I. Cohen, J. Gerlach, J. D. Friedman, G. Germano, et al.
Prognostic implications of atrial fibrillation in patients undergoing myocardial perfusion single-photon emission computed tomography
J. Am. Coll. Cardiol.,
September 1, 2004;
44(5):
1062 - 1070.
[Abstract]
[Full Text]
[PDF]
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B. P. Knight, A. Desai, J. Coman, M. Faddis, and P. Yong
Long-term retention of cardiac resynchronization therapy
J. Am. Coll. Cardiol.,
July 7, 2004;
44(1):
72 - 77.
[Abstract]
[Full Text]
[PDF]
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Y.-M. Cha, M. M. Redfield, W.-K. Shen, and B. J. Gersh
Atrial Fibrillation and Ventricular Dysfunction: A Vicious Electromechanical Cycle
Circulation,
June 15, 2004;
109(23):
2839 - 2843.
[Full Text]
[PDF]
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A. Ahmed, P. Thornton, G. J. Perry, R. M. Allman, and J. F. DeLong
Impact of atrial fibrillation on mortality and readmission in older adults hospitalized with heart failure
Eur J Heart Fail,
June 1, 2004;
6(4):
421 - 426.
[Abstract]
[Full Text]
[PDF]
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J. S. Kalus, C. M. White, M. F. Caron, C. I. Coleman, H. Takata, and J. Kluger
Indicators of atrial fibrillation risk in cardiac surgery patients on prophylactic amiodarone
Ann. Thorac. Surg.,
April 1, 2004;
77(4):
1288 - 1292.
[Abstract]
[Full Text]
[PDF]
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R.J. Shelton, G.C. Kaye, and J.G.F. Cleland
Controlling persistent atrial fibrillation
QJM,
March 1, 2004;
97(3):
179 - 180.
[Full Text]
[PDF]
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G. Djaiani, B. Phillips-Bute, M. Podgoreanu, R. H. Messier, J. P. Mathew, F. Clements, and M. F. Newman
The Association of Patent Foramen Ovale and Atrial Fibrillation After Coronary Artery Bypass Graft Surgery
Anesth. Analg.,
March 1, 2004;
98(3):
585 - 589.
[Abstract]
[Full Text]
[PDF]
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B. Ruo, A. M. Capra, N. G. Jensvold, and A. S. Go
Racial variation in the prevalence of atrial fibrillation among patients with heart failure: the Epidemiology, Practice, Outcomes, and Costs of Heart Failure (EPOCH) study
J. Am. Coll. Cardiol.,
February 4, 2004;
43(3):
429 - 435.
[Abstract]
[Full Text]
[PDF]
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C. W. Israel, G. Gronefeld, J. R. Ehrlich, Y.-G. Li, and S. H. Hohnloser
Long-term risk of recurrent atrial fibrillation as documented by an implantable monitoring device: Implications for optimal patient care
J. Am. Coll. Cardiol.,
January 7, 2004;
43(1):
47 - 52.
[Abstract]
[Full Text]
[PDF]
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A. Quesada, J.ús Almendral, F. Arribas, R. Ricci, C. Wolpert, P. Adragao, E. Cobo, X. Navarro, and on behalf DATAS investigators
The DATAS rationale and design: a controlled, randomized trial to assess the clinical benefit of dual chamber (DDED) defibrillator
Europace,
January 1, 2004;
6(2):
142 - 150.
[Abstract]
[Full Text]
[PDF]
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T. Deneke, T. Lawo, B. Gerritse, B. Lemke, and for the European GEM DRTM Investigators
Mortality of patients with implanted cardioverter/defibrillators in relation to episodes of atrial fibrillation
Europace,
January 1, 2004;
6(2):
151 - 158.
[Abstract]
[Full Text]
[PDF]
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M. P. van den Berg, I. C. van Gelder, and D. J. van Veldhuisen
Depletion of atrial natriuretic peptide during longstanding atrial fibrillation
Europace,
January 1, 2004;
6(5):
433 - 437.
[Abstract]
[Full Text]
[PDF]
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J. K. Ghali, H. J. Krause-Steinrauf, K. F. Adams Jr, S. S. Khan, Y. D. Rosenberg, C. W. Yancy Jr, J. B. Young, S. Goldman, M. A. Peberdy, and J. Lindenfeld
Gender differences in advanced heart failure: insights from the BEST study
J. Am. Coll. Cardiol.,
December 17, 2003;
42(12):
2128 - 2134.
[Abstract]
[Full Text]
[PDF]
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R. W Troughton, C. R Asher, and A. L Klein
The role of echocardiography in atrial fibrillation and cardioversion
Heart,
December 1, 2003;
89(12):
1447 - 1454.
[Full Text]
[PDF]
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P. A Gould, M. D Esler, and D. M Kaye
Chronic atrial fibrillation does not influence the magnitude of sympathetic overactivity in patients with heart failure
Eur. Heart J.,
September 2, 2003;
24(18):
1657 - 1662.
[Abstract]
[Full Text]
[PDF]
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G.C. Gronefeld and S.H. Hohnloser
Quality of life in atrial fibrillation: an increasingly important issue
Eur. Heart J. Suppl.,
September 1, 2003;
5(suppl_H):
H25 - H33.
[Abstract]
[PDF]
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T. S. M. Tsang, G. W. Petty, M. E. Barnes, W. M. O'Fallon, K. R. Bailey, D. O. Wiebers, J. D. Sicks, T. J. H. Christianson, J. B. Seward, and B. J. Gersh
The prevalence of atrial fibrillation in incident stroke cases and matched population controls in Rochester, Minnesota: Changes over three decades
J. Am. Coll. Cardiol.,
July 2, 2003;
42(1):
93 - 100.
[Abstract]
[Full Text]
[PDF]
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T. J. Wang, M. G. Larson, D. Levy, R. S. Vasan, E. P. Leip, P. A. Wolf, R. B. D'Agostino, J. M. Murabito, W. B. Kannel, and E. J. Benjamin
Temporal Relations of Atrial Fibrillation and Congestive Heart Failure and Their Joint Influence on Mortality: The Framingham Heart Study
Circulation,
June 17, 2003;
107(23):
2920 - 2925.
[Abstract]
[Full Text]
[PDF]
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E. Vermes, J.-C. Tardif, M. G. Bourassa, N. Racine, S. Levesque, M. White, P. G. Guerra, and A. Ducharme
Enalapril Decreases the Incidence of Atrial Fibrillation in Patients With Left Ventricular Dysfunction: Insight From the Studies Of Left Ventricular Dysfunction (SOLVD) Trials
Circulation,
June 17, 2003;
107(23):
2926 - 2931.
[Abstract]
[Full Text]
[PDF]
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T. J. Wang, D. Levy, E. J. Benjamin, and R. S. Vasan
The Epidemiology of "Asymptomatic" Left Ventricular Systolic Dysfunction: Implications for Screening
Ann Intern Med,
June 3, 2003;
138(11):
907 - 916.
[Abstract]
[Full Text]
[PDF]
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G. C. Gronefeld and S. H. Hohnloser
Heart Failure Complicated by Atrial Fibrillation: Mechanistic, Prognostic, and Therapeutic Implications
Journal of Cardiovascular Pharmacology and Therapeutics,
June 1, 2003;
8(2):
107 - 113.
[Abstract]
[PDF]
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Abstract
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