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REVIEW ARTICLE

The incidence of congenital heart disease

Julien I. E. Hoffman, MD, FACC^*,* and Samuel Kaplan, MD, FACC

^* Department of Pediatrics and the Cardiovascular Research Institute, University of California, San Francisco, California, USA
Ahmanson/UCLA Adult Congenital Heart Disease Center, Departments of Medicine, Pediatrics and Surgery, UCLA School of Medicine, Los Angeles, California, USASupported in part by Program Project Grant HL 25847 from the National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute.

Manuscript received September 26, 2001; revised manuscript received March 4, 2002, accepted March 27, 2002.

^* Reprint requests and correspondence: Dr. Julien I. E. Hoffman, Box 0544, Room M1331, University of California, 505 Parnassus Avenue, San Francisco, California 94143.
jhoffman{at}pedcard.ucsf.edu

This study was designed to determine the reasons for the variability of the incidence of congenital heart disease (CHD), estimate its true value and provide data about the incidence of specific major forms of CHD. The incidence of CHD in different studies varies from about 4/1,000 to 50/1,000 live births. The relative frequency of different major forms of CHD also differs greatly from study to study. In addition, another 20/1,000 live births have bicuspid aortic valves, isolated anomalous lobar pulmonary veins or a silent patent ductus arteriosus. The incidences reported in 62 studies published after 1955 were examined. Attention was paid to the ways in which the studies were conducted, with special reference to the increased use of echocardiography in the neonatal nursery. The total incidence of CHD was related to the relative frequency of ventricular septal defects (VSDs), the most common type of CHD. The incidences of individual major forms of CHD were determined from 44 studies. The incidence of CHD depends primarily on the number of small VSDs included in the series, and this number in turn depends upon how early the diagnosis is made. If major forms of CHD are stratified into trivial, moderate and severe categories, the variation in incidence depends mainly on the number of trivial lesions included. The incidence of moderate and severe forms of CHD is about 6/1,000 live births (19/1,000 live births if the potentially serious bicuspid aortic valve is included), and of all forms increases to 75/1,000 live births if tiny muscular VSDs present at birth and other trivial lesions are included. Given the causes of variation, there is no evidence for differences in incidence in different countries or times.

Abbreviations and Acronyms   AS   aortic stenosis   ASD   atrial septal defect   AVSD   atrioventricular septal defect   BAV   bicuspid aortic valve   CHD   congenital heart disease   Coarc   coarctation of the aorta   DORV   double outlet right ventricle   NERICP   New England Regional Infant Cardiac Program   PDA   patent ductus arteriosus   PS   pulmonic stenosis   SV   single ventricle   VSD   ventricular septal defect

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				V. M. Christoffels, M. T.M. Mommersteeg, M.-O. Trowe, O. W.J. Prall, C. de Gier-de Vries, A. T. Soufan, M. Bussen, K. Schuster-Gossler, R. P. Harvey, A. F.M. Moorman, et al. Formation of the Venous Pole of the Heart From an Nkx2-5-Negative Precursor Population Requires Tbx18 Circ. Res., June 23, 2006; 98(12): 1555 - 1563. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				R. B. Hinton Jr, J. Lincoln, G. H. Deutsch, H. Osinska, P. B. Manning, D. W. Benson, and K. E. Yutzey Extracellular Matrix Remodeling and Organization in Developing and Diseased Aortic Valves Circ. Res., June 9, 2006; 98(11): 1431 - 1438. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				P. Khairy, M. J. Landzberg, M. A. Gatzoulis, L.-A. Mercier, S. M. Fernandes, J.-M. Cote, J.-P. Lavoie, A. Fournier, P. G. Guerra, A. Frogoudaki, et al. Transvenous Pacing Leads and Systemic Thromboemboli in Patients With Intracardiac Shunts: A Multicenter Study Circulation, May 23, 2006; 113(20): 2391 - 2397. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				I. M. van Beynum, L. Kapusta, M. den Heijer, S. H.H.M. Vermeulen, M. Kouwenberg, O. Daniels, and H. J. Blom Maternal MTHFR 677C>T is a risk factor for congenital heart defects: effect modification by periconceptional folate supplementation Eur. Heart J., April 2, 2006; 27(8): 981 - 987. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				E. P. Kirk, C. Hyun, P. C. Thomson, D. Lai, M. L. Castro, C. Biben, M. F. Buckley, I. C.A. Martin, C. Moran, and R. P. Harvey Quantitative Trait Loci Modifying Cardiac Atrial Septal Morphology and Risk of Patent Foramen Ovale in the Mouse Circ. Res., March 17, 2006; 98(5): 651 - 658. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				F. Bajolle, S. Zaffran, R. G. Kelly, J. Hadchouel, D. Bonnet, N. A. Brown, and M. E. Buckingham Rotation of the Myocardial Wall of the Outflow Tract Is Implicated in the Normal Positioning of the Great Arteries Circ. Res., February 17, 2006; 98(3): 421 - 428. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				T. Thom, N. Haase, W. Rosamond, V. J. Howard, J. Rumsfeld, T. Manolio, Z.-J. Zheng, K. Flegal, C. O'Donnell, S. Kittner, et al. Heart Disease and Stroke Statistics--2006 Update: A Report From the American Heart Association Statistics Committee and Stroke Statistics Subcommittee Circulation, February 14, 2006; 113(6): e85 - e151. [Full Text] [PDF]

				Improved National Prevalence Estimates for 18 Selected Major Birth Defects--United States, 1999-2001 JAMA, February 8, 2006; 295(6): 618 - 620. [Full Text] [PDF]

				J. M. Smrcek, C. Berg, A. Geipel, R. Fimmers, K. Diedrich, and U. Gembruch Early Fetal Echocardiography: Heart Biometry and Visualization of Cardiac Structures Between 10 and 15 Weeks' Gestation J. Ultrasound Med., February 1, 2006; 25(2): 173 - 182. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]