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Figure 8 Direct and indirect effects of peroxisomal proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs). Peroxisomal proliferator-activated receptor activation by synthetic ligands induces metabolic changes that may limit inflammation and atherosclerosis indirectly. Alternatively, the expression of PPARs in most major vascular and inflammatory cells and PPAR regulation of relevant target genes in those cells raises the possibility that PPARs have a direct effect on inflammation and atherosclerosis. ABCA1 = ATP-binding cassette transporter 1; HDL = high-density lipoprotein; IFN = interferon gamma; MCP1 = monocyte chemoattractive protein-1; VCAM1 = vascular cell adhesion molecule-1. Reprinted with permission from Plutzky (67).